In fact, the popularity of Superman and Batman were helped by the fact that many kids watched reruns of their earlier shows: the Adventures of Superman television show from the 1950s, starring George Reeves, and the 1960s Batman, starring Adam West with Burt Ward as Robin. Since I retired, I’ve had the opportunity to revisit these shows. With a little extra time in my day, I discovered they appear on one of those vintage television stations (MeTV), along with the 1970s Wonder Woman starring Lynda Carter, as a superheroes ensemble. In addition to providing a trip down memory lane watching these television shows again, I came to another realization—something I was much more aware of after studying and teaching American history my entire life. Each show reflects the time period in which they were created, illustrating what life was like and what values were important for Americans at the time. Watching these shows is a fascinating reflection on the 1950s, ‘60s and ‘70s.

The Adventures of Superman (1952-58)

Superman emphasized values important to Americans, including honesty, working hard, fairness and helping others. The villains who worked to achieve their goals epitomized the opposite—especially greed, dishonesty and an abuse of power. Clark Kent was a hardworking reporter who was always polite. Kent was logical and inquisitive before relying on Superman’s powers. He even stressed a good diet in one episode, opting for milk when he is offered a “drink” and taking time to explain his healthful choice.

In fact, all of the main characters were used to stress family values typical of the 1950s and ‘50s television. Jimmy Olson was enthusiastic but made youthful mistakes, yet he always learned from them. Perry White was a demanding but responsible authority figure scolding Olsen when necessary, labeling him a “young whipper-snapper.” Lois Lane was ambitious but courteous, and as a professional woman, she fought for justice like Superman, but with her pen. As a working woman, she had to be single though, according to ‘50s expectations.

The tense struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union was ever-present in the ‘50s, causing fear of communism, espionage and war. Threats that seemed insurmountable to Americans were somewhat assuaged by Superman, who was a reassuring presence who could overcome all challenges.

The Adventures of Superman aired when America was experiencing rapid change while seeking stability and security. The series showed good could triumph over evil, and those who were able to help others had a responsibility to do it. It was defending truth, justice and the American way—just what was envisioned in the 1950s.

Batman (1966-1968)

It would not take long for someone to notice the differences between the television shows Batman and Superman. While they both are fighting for good with the message of good triumphing over evil, Batman was a switch from a serious superhero to a show that used campy comedy and satire. The colorful costumes, exaggerated villains and on-screen visualization of sound effects such as BAM! and ZAP! kept the show light-hearted. The difference is reflective of the 1960s. That’s not to say that the 1960s were all humorous and the 1950s were all serious. Rather, the levity of Batman was an opportunity for a respite from the troubles of the ‘60s.

As the Cold War raged on, Batman fittingly was fighting for order and protecting his community in Gotham City. Storylines often included the theft of scientific inventions and what happens when they are in the hands of villains—villains who often posed a threat to public safety. Batman even used the computer to fight for good and, appropriate to the time, his computer used punchcards—probably state-of-the-art for the era! Another indicator of the 1960s was that the technology Batman used to fight crime was often labeled “atomic.”

The show utilized a variety of themes directed at youth culture, and the Baby Boom generation of the era. Batman was always a serious and composed individual, regardless of how absurd the situation was. He always had good manners, personal discipline and responsible behavior. In one episode, he turns down help offered by high school students, instead reminding them the importance of staying in school. Also notable is how Batman’s faithful companion, Robin, always followed the directions of his elder compatriot—not a subtle message in a time when the younger generation was starting to question the older generation.

At the same time, the producers included colorful costumes and popular activities of that generation. The first episode famously includes Batman dancing with Jill St. John to modern popular music. The dance became known as the “Batusi” and was so recognizable that Uma Thurman‘s character in Pulp Fiction included it in the dance competition scene with John Travolta. It’s also worth noting, in that episode, that when Batman goes to the bar to order a drink, he orders a plain orange juice, which the bartender delivers as a Batman special.

At a time when cities witnessed increasing crime rates and the role of the police was changing, Batman was there to fight crime in the city. He often relied upon gadgets not available to the regular police officers. Though Batman operated on his own, he still worked with the police and answered to Commissioner Gordon. It was always encouraged in the show for folks to be good citizens and report wrongdoing when they see it, an important piece of advice as crime rates increased in real cities. The show was very clear in demonstrating that crime doesn’t pay with that theme being at the conclusion of every episode.

Another important aspect of the show was teamwork, which was demonstrated by Robin as a youthful, energetic assistant who could be counted on to help. The multigenerational teamwork extended to Alfred, who was a senior citizen taking care of Wayne Manor but also providing assistance to the crime fighter. One key aspect about all three of these generational team members is that brain power was more important than physical strength. Many two-part episodes included a cliffhanger of the dynamic duo caught in some situation where the resolution required intellectual reasoning rather than brute force.

One final note about 1960s culture being reflected in the show Batman can be seen in the popularity of toys related to the show. Material culture exploded in this decade, and the wide variety of products available related to the show ranged from action figures to the Batmobile. Even Batman’s utility belt was available to children. They, too, could be crime fighters like Batman.

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Wonder Woman (1975-1979)

As the Equal Rights Amendment was being promoted and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act passed in 1974, it’s no surprise a woman was featured as the superhero in a 1970s television show. Wonder Woman could investigate, fight injustice and problem solve without the help of a man. In fact, Wonder Woman’s secret identity, Diana Prince, despite working for Steve Trevor, often had to transform into Wonder Woman to rescue him from perilous situations. Additionally, Diana Prince was always portrayed as rational, levelheaded and very competent. The show portrayed her not only as a superhero, but in professional employment settings at a time when the role of women in the workplace was changing to reflect the same.

Wonder Woman was physically powerful and capable of defending herself, but at the same time, she used intelligence and compassion alongside her physical strength. She notably sought peaceful solutions when possible with storylines illustrating that compassion was as important as strength. It was very fitting for the 1970s that Wonder Woman also never used her powers to acquire wealth, seek political power or establish personal glory.

Airing immediately after the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal and the revelation of the Pentagon Papers—a time when trust in authority figures and government officials was at an all-time low—it was fitting that one of Wonder Woman’s greatest tools was her lasso of truth. When looped around villains who were dishonest, they were forced to reveal the truth. She was often exposing schemes of corruption while protecting the average citizen—themes very welcome in the 1970s.

At a time when patriotism was suffering from the events of the 1970s, the show’s first season was actually set during an earlier period that evoked patriotic feelings: World War II with Nazis as the villains. This, of course, was based upon Wonder Woman’s comic book origin, 85 years ago this week, when she first appeared during World War II. However, in the 1970s it was a fitting reminder of a flag-waving patriotic era in our country’s history. Even her costume was a nod to patriotism. After all, neither Superman nor Batman wore American flag-based costumes. And since Diana Prince was not from the United States, her red, white and blue costume made it clear what side she was fighting for. Both in the 1940s when she first appeared and again in the 1970s, her outfit was a not-so-subtle attempt to boost patriotism. The producers, however, were very cautious not to use Wonder Woman as a weapon of war who just attacked the enemy, especially since Americans were weary of war after nearly 10 years of active fighting in Vietnam.

To cut down on production costs, the second season as well as the third shifted from the 1940s to what was present day 1970s. The villains and their plots also shifted to popular 1970s topics. There were episodes featuring aliens, mind control experiments using disco music and even missiles controlled by mind waves. A number of episodes also featured white-collar crime, from counterfeiting to music industry extortion—all very fitting themes for the 1970s. If something was popular in the ‘70s, it likely made an appearance, including Wonder Woman chasing down bad guys on a dirt bike in one episode and on a skateboard in another. As the popularity of computers increased, including the introduction of home computers, both a computer and a robot had prominent roles in the show.

I always thought all three shows were entertaining for different reasons, but looking at them from a historical perspective gives today’s viewers a whole new set of reasons to enjoy them, and maybe this is why their reruns remain popular. We can enjoy good triumphing over evil in all three shows, but since they are each presented in a different format, all impacted by the decade in which they were broadcast, we also get the bonus of a glimpse into the past. Only one question remains: How did no one ever recognize Clark Kent, Bruce Wayne, or Diana Prince as their superhero alter egos?

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

Jennie Dean was born in 1853 (some sources indicate 1848) in Sudley Springs, Virginia. Her father Charles Dean, who was a domestic servant, and her mother Annie Dean were both owned by the Newman family, and by the time of the American Civil War, they had been sold to the Cushing family. They were brought to the Cushing family home and farm outside of Manassas, Virginia. Born into slavery, Jennie Dean was finally emancipated as a result of the American Civil War.

Both Manassas and the surrounding county of Prince William were destroyed and its residents left destitute after years of fighting. With no formal education, Dean attended school briefly after the war, when it was no longer illegal to educate people of color. In 1866, she traveled to Washington, D.C., as a teenager to find work as a housemaid. Never forgetting her roots and those still living around Manassas, she traveled home every weekend to help organize churches, both for the religious worship services they offered as well as for their educational opportunities in the establishment of Sunday schools. The Sunday schools were not what we think of today, centered on religious instruction. Rather, Dean rode around the countryside of Northern Virginia, in a wagon, providing free classes to youth in vocational skills and what she labeled Victorian values. Dean eventually raised the money to help create four church congregations in Northern Virginia, including the funds needed to purchase the land.

Dean saved all of the money she earned to purchase the farm her family was living on near Manassas. Purchasing the farm allowed her sister to attend school and become a teacher. She did what was necessary to help her family, even at the expense of sacrificing opportunities for herself.

Dean knew that education would be the key to a better future, not only for her family, but for her entire community. While slavery was over, many of those who were now labeled as freedmen had no foundation to know what to do after years of being told what to do. Furthermore, there were no social programs or organizations to help in southern states like Virginia—states not at all pleased with emancipation. Many freedmen turned to sharecropping, a system where the land owner allowed a tenant farmer to farm the land and pay rent by giving them part of their crop. The system of sharecropping resulted in many feeling hopeless as it left the farmers unable to afford a down payment for their own land, relegating tenant farmers to a life of poverty—a system just above slavery.

Setting her sights on an even bigger goal, Dean conducted a multi-year campaign of traveling, speaking, preaching and campaigning in a continuous fundraising effort for money to create a school to educate the African American youth of the Manassas area. On October 7, 1893, the Manassas Industrial School for Colored Youth was chartered. Dean had personally campaigned throughout the eastern United States, including Boston, New York City, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C., to raise the funds needed to purchase 100 acres of land. Students from five counties in northern Virginia would be admitted, and the school provided both educational and vocational training.

The first building was completed in September of 1894 in time for the start of a new school year. Frederick Douglass was the featured speaker at the dedication ceremony. Howland Hall served as both a dormitory and instructional building in the early years, but as enrollment exceeded 150 students by 1900, expansion was necessary. The curriculum was varied and included instruction in mathematics, science, physiology, literature, music, geography and English as well as vocational courses in wheelwrighting, mattress-making, painting, mechanical drawing, shoemaking and animal husbandry. Female vocational courses included sewing, cooking, domestic arts, household arts and laundry methods. The success of the school resulted in her being the first African American woman to be invited to the White House to meet a President—Theodore Roosevelt in 1906.

Remarkably, the expenses for tuition were often offset by the products being created by the students in vocational settings that were then sold to the public. The school continued to operate as a private school over the next 40 years. Expansion continued with the support of many wealthy benefactors, including Andrew Carnegie.

Jennie Dean died in 1913, and her school was eventually acquired by three county school systems in Virginia who continued to operate the school. The school was closed and the building razed when the facilities became outdated and Brown v. Board of Education removed the legality of segregated schools, making it no longer needed. A modern elementary school was constructed on the site, which is named for Jennie Dean.

It’s a classic story of how someone’s personal resilience, economic sacrifice and vision can not only help their family, but uplift an entire community and make a difference for countless individuals. It’s also a reminder that it’s worth taking the time to check out those historic markers and statues that we often pass by.

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Iva was born July 4, 1916. Born in Los Angeles to Japanese parents, she was classified as Nisei— someone with Japanese immigrant parents born in the United States. She was a citizen by birth. Her father, Jun Toguri, immigrated to the United States in 1899 looking for work. His wife, Fumi, joined him here 14 years later, and that’s when they started a family. Iva was the second of four children. Jun Toguri only taught his children English because he wanted them to be American. Despite the fact her birth name was Ikuku, she used the shorter but more American name Iva.

A young Iva Toguri attended grammar school in San Diego and Calexico before returning to Los Angeles with her family. She graduated from Compton High School where she was on the varsity tennis team. Her childhood was pretty typical, participating in Girl Scouts and attending a Methodist church where her family were members. Iva was also a talented piano player, taking piano lessons for eight years. She was particularly fond of popular American music, including swing music.

Iva attended the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) and earned a degree in zoology with the hope of matriculating to medical school to become a doctor. Her interest in medical school was the result of her mother being seriously ill with diabetes. In college, she often participated in field trips to do paleontological work at fossil sites. She also enjoyed watching baseball games and horse races. After working in her father‘s mercantile store, she purchased a Chrysler, which she drove to class. Upon turning 21, she registered to vote and voted for Wendell Wilkie in the Presidential election of 1940.

In 1941, Iva’s mother received word from Japan that her sister (Iva’s aunt) was gravely ill. Iva’s mom decided that it was important to travel to Japan to visit with her sister, but since she wasn’t well enough to travel alone, Iva would accompany her on the trip. The idea was strictly her mother’s. Iva had no interest in visiting Japan—she had never lived there and didn’t speak Japanese. This was a quick, unplanned trip, so she traveled without a passport, only carrying a Certificate of Identification. Upon arrival, she visited the American Consul office to seek their assistance in obtaining a passport. However, that would never happen.

If you know the year 1941 historically, then you know what’s about to happen. Before her paperwork was finalized, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, causing the two nations to go to war. Iva Toguri spent the duration of the war in Japan where she became popularly known by another name.

My reading of World War II history started in the 1970s, courtesy of my dad who used to take me to the library quite often. It was early in my reading that I encountered the names Axis Sally and Tokyo Rose—English-speaking Americans who were radio broadcasters for Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. Their radio shows were directed at American soldiers and were filled with propaganda messages. After the war, Mildred Gillars (Axis Sally) and Iva Toguri (the most prominent of the women called Tokyo Rose by American servicemen) were both arrested, put on trial, and convicted of treason. They were considered the worst of the worst—Americans who had sided with our enemies.

In fact, Tokyo Rose was more often discussed than Axis Sally, and I didn’t give much thought to the whole story—nor was it readily available in the pre-Internet days. I wish it had been because there is so much more to Toguri’s story. The story I learned, the story of a treasonous turncoat, was a story framed in the emotions of post-war America. The Japanese were still viewed as monstrous villains who started the war on a Sunday morning while feigning to negotiate for peace. The brutality of the Pacific war did nothing to improve that attitude. Convicting Iva Toguri was seen as the right thing to do. It was the only option in the eyes of Americans who were exhausted by the cost and sacrifices of the war. Iva Toguri was another opportunity for justice, vengeful justice.

Toguri was stranded in Japan upon the start of the war and the severing of diplomatic relations. The Japanese government pressured her to renounce her U.S. citizenship, but she refused. As a result, she was denied a food ration card until she was so malnourished she had to be hospitalized. Facing daily ridicule in the small town where her aunt resided, she moved to Tokyo. Iva took a job as a typist and eventually was assigned to the Japan Broadcasting Company working for Radio Tokyo. She needed a job because the Japanese government insisted she pay for her hospitalization—the hospitalization she required after they had denied her food. In addition to malnutrition, she also suffered from Beri Beri due to the food deprivation.

While working there in 1943, Japanese authorities wanted Toguri to host a radio show because her English was accent free. She refused, and she again refused to relinquish her citizenship. Later that year, she met Allied POWs who were brought to Tokyo to read propaganda statements on a radio program called Zero Hour. They convinced her to accept the offer of hosting Zero Hour after they explained that when reading, they did so in a comical manner that made the statements more of a farce, rendering the propaganda harmless. It was their way to contribute to the war. They convinced her she could do the same, and she finally accepted the offer to host the show.

Iva adopted the name “Orphan Anne” as a nod to her status away from her American home. She used her knowledge of popular American music to select tunes for Zero Hour. She used her mastery of the English language to deliver the propaganda messages in a comedic manner. Her captors had given her heavily scripted commentary to read between the popular American songs, but she successfully used a farcical presentation that provided humor for American servicemen and cleverly defeated the propaganda value in the broadcasts. Iva became a favorite of Americans listening, and they bestowed on her the name “Tokyo Rose.” In fact, she was so popular that the name was used for other females broadcasting at Radio Tokyo.

From 1944 through the end of the war in 1945, Iva Toguri continued her work. She teamed primarily with Australian Major Charles Cousens, using dry humor and double entendre to continue sabotaging the propaganda messages from Radio Tokyo. Her efforts continued, despite the risk of the Japanese discovering what she was doing. In 1945, she married Felipe d’Aquino, a Portuguese citizen living in Japan.

In September of 1945, as American occupation forces arrived in Japan, Iva Toguri d’Aquino was arrested. After initial interviews by the U.S. Army and F.B.I., she was released and eager to finally return to the United States. Time was not on her side. It didn’t take long for the backlash to start with the news that “Tokyo Rose” was coming back to the United States. The backlash led to outrage and public pressure, seemingly organized by famed American columnist Walter Winchell who called for her prosecution. In 1948, blocked from returning, she was arrested by a U.S. government representative in Tokyo and was charged with treason by aiding the enemy.

Iva Toguri d’Aquino was returned to San Francisco where she faced trial in the U.S. District Court for Northern California. The trial started on July 5, 1949, and on September 29, 1949, she was found guilty of one count of treason by aiding the enemy. Remarkably, the top two prosecution witnesses were her Japanese bosses at Radio Tokyo. Despite evidence produced by the defense that she undermined the Japanese propaganda effort and even smuggled food and medicine to the POWs she worked with, the jury ended up deadlocked. It was later revealed that the single guilty charge was a compromise for the jury members. She was sentenced to 10 years in prison and fined $10,000. The sentence was carried out at the Federal Reformatory for Women in Alderson, West Virginia. She served six years before being released for good behavior.

Iva then had to fight her next battle as the U.S. government pressed for her deportation in 1956. A deportation order was filed immediately upon her release, and her lawyers fought the order for two years. After two years, the Supreme Court eventually ruled that because she had never surrendered her U.S. citizenship, they could not deport her. It is interesting to note that while she was on trial for treason, she could have legally claimed Portuguese citizenship because of her marriage and ended the trial, but even then she still refused to give up her American citizenship. The government did continually block her husband from immigrating to the United States. Sadly, after spending years apart, despite their love for each other, they divorced in 1980.

Having moved to Chicago and once again employed with the family mercantile business, Iva returned to a quiet life working to restore her name. The Chicago Tribune completed an investigation in 1976 with evidence showing that she had, indeed, worked to undermine Japanese propaganda efforts and that evidence was suppressed at her trial, including statements from American servicemen. Even more damning, they uncovered the fact that the prosecutors threatened the two primary prosecution witnesses with their own prosecution if they didn’t lie and claim that she willingly helped Japan with anti-American propaganda. The following year, President Gerald Ford issued her a full and unconditional pardon.

In 2006, Iva Toguri d’Aquino was awarded the Edward Herlihy Citizenship Award by a committee of World War II veterans. She received the award for her resilience, courage and true patriotism. Toguri d’Aquino stated it was “the most memorable day” of her life—very fitting for a woman born on the Fourth of July, a woman who loved her American citizenship. She died only months after receiving the award.

Thankfully, the truth is now recognized and should continue to be examined so mistakes like this never happen again. While her reputation was restored, she was never compensated for her six years in prison, nor was the fine she paid returned. There was also the loss of her marriage and the many years of indignation and vilification. It becomes a great example of irony that the woman once known as Tokyo Rose serves as a better example of an American patriot than many who claim to be so today.

One final note, while we are restoring the reputations of those unfairly punished during World War II or the years immediately after, there are two other men that need justice. Admiral Husband Kimmel, Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, and General Walter Short, General of the Hawaiian Department of the Army, were used as scapegoats after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Ten days after the attack, they were removed from command and demoted in rank. An official investigation blamed them for poor judgment and dereliction of duty. Both of these conclusions were inaccurate, fueled by the fact Washington intelligence had screwed up and needed somebody to blame. In 1999, long after both men had died, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution to exonerate both men. That resolution included a restoration of their rank. However, to this day that has not happened. It is long, long overdue.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

The sacrifice made by those held as prisoners is hard to understand unless you have endured that experience or you had a family member who was held captive. I certainly don’t have any firsthand experience, though I have met and heard the stories of several POWs. They all have incredible stories—stories that deserve to be remembered and honored. I could honestly spend the next year featuring different POW stories in the History Lowdown. In fact, I have another story of a POW already started, but I will save that one for later, and for this edition, I will focus on the amazing story of Douglas Hegdahl.

Douglas Brent Hegdahl was a Baby Boomer born September 3, 1946. He was born in Clark, South Dakota, a small rural town that was never larger than 1,500 residents. Hegdahl graduated from Clark High School, and after spending his life in the plains of South Dakota in a farming community, he wanted to see the world. He really wanted to see Australia. Since the U.S. Navy had used the slogan “Join the Navy and See the World” since 1904, Hegdahl felt this was his opportunity to travel while serving his country.

His mother, Edythe, supported the idea. Since he was joining in 1966 as the Vietnam War was heating up and America’s commitment was increasing, she thought it was a great way to serve but avoid jungle warfare. His father, Abraham Hegdahl, was an Army instructor at the U.S. Army’s Technical School in Sioux Falls during World War II, and after the war, he and his wife managed a family-owned hotel.

Hegdahl joined the Navy on October 25, 1966, and he completed his boot camp training at the naval station in San Diego. He had initially intended to train as a postal clerk but was ultimately assigned as a gunner’s mate. Gunner’s mate—a sailor responsible for the operation, maintenance and repair of all shipboard weapons and ordinance—was his job when he received his duty assignment.

With the rank of Seaman Apprentice (E-2), he was assigned to the U.S.S. Canberra, a guided missile cruiser—a perfect assignment for a sailor who wanted to see Australia since the ship would likely have a port-of-call in Australia as part of the Pacific Fleet. The Canberra was launched during WWII as a Baltimore class cruiser. If you recall the game Battleship, the cruiser was the ship with three peg holes—smaller than the battleship with four and bigger than the destroyer with two. The Canberra is the only U.S. Navy ship named for a foreign capital.

Without completely digressing into a different topic, I must explain, out of respect, why we have a ship named for a foreign capital. This cruiser was originally destined to be the U.S.S. Pittsburgh, but the navy changed the name to honor the Australian ship of the same name lost at the Battle of Savo Island. During this WWII battle, the Canberra was in the lead position of a fleet of American and Australian ships. Upon the discovery of an approaching Japanese fleet of warships, the Canberra, without hesitation, turned to shield American merchant vessels who were unloading men and supplies on the island of Guadalcanal. In three minutes, the Canberra was hit by more than 20 artillery shells and two torpedoes. The fierce stand of the Canberra allowed the merchant ships to flee and the Marines to dig in, but the Canberra was ultimately lost with heavy casualties.

When Hegdahl was assigned to the U.S.S. Canberra, she had been converted to a guided missile cruiser with half of the ship equipped with guns and the other half missile launchers. During his time aboard, the Canberra was stationed off the coast of Vietnam, shelling enemy fortifications, bridges and transportation routes as well as providing artillery support for U.S. troops. It was during one of those bombardments that Hegdahl’s life changed forever. On April 6, 1967, while the ship was conducting operations in the Gulf of Tonkin, three miles off the coast of North Vietnam, the concussion from the gun blast of the Canberra’s five-inch guns knocked him overboard. In the midst of an artillery barrage, nobody heard his pleas for help. Hegdahl was declared missing in action, and his shipmates conducted a memorial service for him.

Doug Hegdahl survived the fall and treaded water until he was picked up by a Vietnamese fishing boat. The fisherman treated him well, but that quickly changed when they turned him over to the North Vietnamese militia who beat him with rifle butts. He was transferred to Hoa Lo Prison in Hanoi, a prison sarcastically nicknamed the “Hanoi Hilton” for its notoriously poor conditions and torture.

When his interrogation took place at the prison, it was assumed Hegdahl must either be a commando or a spy since he was found in the water off the coast. They were incredulous that he simply was knocked overboard by a gun blast. As Hegdahl faced additional beatings, he needed a plan. His plan was to act as a man with low intelligence, a bumpkin. After a few more days of interrogation, his plan worked. His captors gave up on the idea that he possessed any valuable intelligence.

His captors’ next plan for him was to have him write anti-American admissions they could use as propaganda. Building on his previous success, Hegdahl convinced his captors that he could not read or write. Not willing to give up on the idea that he could be used as a propaganda tool, they actually assigned him a Vietnamese tutor to teach him how to read and write in English. They assumed he would be easy to convert to their side, and having him literate would give them additional propaganda messaging. Hegdahl, however, proved to be a terrible student, so much so that they gave up on him yet again and labeled him “The Incredibly Stupid One.” They finally gave him a typed statement and told him to sign it; he scribbled his name and then added the title “Captain of the Canberra.” The absurdity of that statement made it impossible for it to be used as a propaganda release.

In fact, his captors considered him harmless to the extent that they permitted him to wander about the prison area without confinement. “The Incredibly Stupid One” began monitoring the operations of the camp. He was able to destroy at least five enemy trucks by putting dirt and sand in the gas tanks. He discovered he could personally talk to all of the prisoners during the guards’ nap time in the middle of the afternoon. Most remarkably, Hegdahl memorized the name, rank and other vital details about all 256 American prisoners in Hanoi. He used the tune “Old MacDonald Had a Farm” as a way to memorize them all in the form of a song—a very important task since North Vietnamese officials did not follow the Geneva Convention in regard to treatment of prisoners, including notifying anyone when an individual was captured. For many families, they only knew their loved one was missing.

North Vietnam announced they would release three American POWs in 1969 as a show of good faith during negotiations, but it was really a propaganda ploy. Hegdahl refused and had to be ordered by the senior American POW in Hanoi, Lt. Col. Robinson Risner, to accept the release. Hegdahl was able to provide the U.S. government and the families of the POWs with invaluable intelligence, including updates on servicemen who were alive but captive. He also provided critical intelligence on the location and description of the camp facilities. His specific location details were acquired when he tricked his captors into taking him into Hanoi to get eyeglasses, and he memorized everything about the journey. Remarkably, he tricked them into getting him glasses by telling them he was interested in reading the informational booklets they offered to American POWs. He knew they would agree because the booklets were pro-communist propaganda. This was the same man they called “The Incredibly Stupid One”—the one who had them convinced he was too dumb to read.

During the Paris Peace Talks between North Vietnam and the United States, Hegdahl attended as a witness. He could testify to the treatment of American POWs by the North Vietnamese, and he wanted to make sure the men he had personally accounted for were repatriated in any peace agreement. There were men who came home thanks to the memory of Doug Hegdahl.

After the war, Hegdahl became an instructor at the U.S. Navy’s Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape School in San Diego. He retired as a Petty Officer from the Navy, and he lives in California.

Hegdahl survived not by overpowering his captors, but by convincing them he was incapable of being a threat. His apparent mindlessness became his disguise, his memory became his weapon and his eventual release became a way to bring vital information home.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown. Thanks to those who have signed up for a paid subscription, but I’m grateful to all who read these history stories. I have and will continue to offer them for free. If you download the Substack app, also free, you can easily access all of the previous History Lowdowns. There are 112 of them. There is also a feature that allows you to listen to them like a podcast.

I dedicate this column to the 84 Altoona men who remain missing in action from World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War.

If you were thinking “the Second Battle of Bull Run” or “Bull Run,” you are correct. And yes, “Manassas” would be correct as well.

As you might expect, the first thing I did upon receiving the book was check my birthday—August 26—to see what happened. There are some folks born on very memorable days, such as July 4 or December 7, that don’t need to check, but for the rest of us, we do. I was hoping as I leafed through the pages that there would be something of interest on my birthday—something cool. Hopefully, it would be a positive event too. A friend of mine has a birthday on September 11, a date remembered for one of the greatest tragedies in our national heritage. Today, my birthday is celebrated for an event that took place on that day, but it received less recognition in the pre-Internet days…

The first event listed on my big day was the capture of the slave ship Amistad by a U.S. government revenue cutter. The imprisoned tribesmen aboard the ship had rebelled and were attempting to return to Africa. Their freedom was eventually won by former president John Quincy Adams in a courtroom. At least it was an event with a positive outcome, but one that was relatively unknown until the 1997 Steven Spielberg film with the same name as the ship.

There was also August 26, 1859, a date important to both Pennsylvania history as well as American history. Colonel Edwin Drake struck oil using a steam-driven drill in Titusville, Pennsylvania. This was the first working modern oil well.

It was August 26, 1920, however, that was a date significant enough to be made a holiday in 1973. In 1920, the 19th Amendment was officially ratified by the United States government. The amendment reads, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” In simple terms, this is the amendment that granted women the right to vote. Today, August 26 is recognized as Women’s Equality Day.

Every year in my American history classes, when we covered the Progressive Era, I was sure to teach the progressive amendments to the Constitution. That’s the 16th through the 19th Amendments. I also covered the 19th Amendment when I taught civics. I consider it an essential concept for both.

One of the challenges in teaching the 19th Amendment was properly conveying to my students how difficult it was for it to be adopted and made law. It was easy to explain that the founding fathers made it difficult to change the Constitution—and for good reason. They wanted to guarantee stability with our government and make sure changes weren’t made each time an election was held. They wanted a greater measure of consensus, too, more than a simple majority. They made the process of both proposing and ratifying it difficult, involving both the federal and state governments.

An amendment can be proposed either by 2/3 vote of each house of Congress or by Congress calling for a national convention when requested by 2/3 of the state legislatures. Of our 27 Constitutional Amendments, the second means of proposing an amendment has never been used.

To ratify a proposed amendment, it becomes more challenging. 3/4 of the states must approve the amendment, either by a vote in their state legislature or by holding special state conventions that also require 3/4 of the states voting affirmative as the approval standard. The state convention method has only been used once—that was for the 21st Amendment.

I should also explain why it was even more difficult for women to get an amendment granting women suffrage. It wasn’t simply the process that other amendments faced. It was a challenge for a multitude of reasons centered on the belief that women did not need to vote because that was a man’s role based on societal standards at the time. The story of how this change came about is quite compelling and certainly a lesson everyone should learn—especially today when voter turnout is poor. The Presidential elections of 2020 and 2024 had a voter turnout rate of 66% and 64% respectively. Local elections vary across the country but are typically half of the Presidential elections and often less, some ranging as low as 15% of eligible voters.

A good way I believed to introduce the struggle was with a book from my collection titled Are Women People? by Alice Miller, published in 1915. It’s a satirical response to all of the reasons why women should not have the right to vote, reasons which were widely circulated at the time. There were many reasons addressed in the book, but these are some of the key ideas that women had to overcome to get the 19th Amendment passed. Please keep in mind, these are not my words.

1. A woman’s greater purpose in life is taking care of the home, serving the role of wife and mother. Voting would interfere with these natural responsibilities.

2. Women are not intelligent enough to vote. They lack both a proper education and life experiences.

3. Elections, and more notably politics, are a rough and sometimes overly argumentative activity unsuitable for women.

4. If a woman disagrees with her husband, when it comes to voting, it will be harmful to the family.

5. Women don’t need to vote because their husband votes for them.

6. The act of voting will make women less feminine and subsequently less attractive.

7. Most women don’t really want to vote; they are just being misled by suffragists.

One of the more amusing sections in the book is when Miller turns the reasons expressed by men as to why women shouldn’t vote into a list of reasons why women shouldn’t have pockets. The sarcasm is cutting and on point. Just substitute the word pockets for voting in the above list to get an idea.

Next, let’s examine the process of how the 19th Amendment was passed. If the Amendment had not faced so many challenges, it would have actually been the 13th Amendment and not the 19th. The first meeting that addressed the fact that women should have the right to vote was the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Both ladies, instrumental to the start of the suffrage movement, died before the 19th Amendment was enacted in 1920.

After being discussed and debated for 30 years, since the Seneca Falls Convention, an amendment granting women the right to vote was introduced by Senator Aaron Sargent of California on January 10, 1878. Because the actions of Susan B. Anthony were most responsible for this first step, the Amendment often carries her name. Anthony was cofounder of the first national women’s suffrage organization (NWSA), and she was even arrested for trying to vote in 1872.

It’s important to note that there is a big difference between an amendment being introduced and an amendment being approved. Between 1878 and 1914, the Amendment was introduced numerous times and only voted on once by the Senate and never by the House of Representatives. The one vote in the Senate was overwhelmingly a rejection. The issue that was painfully clear to women was the fact that a ⅔ vote was required by Congress to get the national Amendment past the first step in Congress, yet Congress didn’t contain a single female representative or senator.

While there was little movement in favor of women’s suffrage on the federal level, some states did grant women suffrage on the local and state level. After all, it is the states that have the constitutional authority to control elections. Support in these states began to slowly erode the larger opposition to women’s suffrage.

By the 20th century, suffrage organizations like the National American Woman Suffrage Association had developed the strategy to circulate petitions, make speeches, and conduct both lobbying and demonstrations. This was slow progress, but it was nonetheless progress.

The year 1917 would bring about significant change. First, New York gave women the right to vote in state elections. New York was the largest state and carried a considerable amount of influence. Second, the United States ended World War I. The argument was soon made. “How can you fight a war for democracy yet prevent half of your country from voting?” Third, Woodrow Wilson changed his mind from opposing women’s suffrage to supporting it. It’s likely that women protesting outside of the White House had an impact on that. More on those remarkable women later.

Things moved pretty quickly in 1919. The House of Representatives approved the Amendment by a vote of 304-90. Two weeks later on June 4, the Senate approved it 56-25. It wasn’t time to celebrate though, ratification still required approval by 3/4 of the state legislatures to become law.

By August of 1920, 35 states had approved the Amendment. Only one more state was needed for it to finally become the law of the land. The next state scheduled to vote—and that presumably had enough votes to pass—was Tennessee. Supporters and opponents from across the nation flocked to Tennessee to lobby for support or opposition. The motion easily passed in the state Senate, but surprisingly, there was a deadlock of 48-48 in the state House of Representatives.

Just prior to another vote being taken, the youngest representative in the state, a man named Harry Burn who had opposed the motion, received a letter—a letter from his mother who told him to “be a good boy” and “vote for suffrage.” He listened to his mom, changing his vote to the affirmative, and thus on his vote, Tennessee approved making it official. The 19th Amendment became the law. One week later, on August 26, 1920, the Amendment was certified and became official.

That was 72 years of struggle, and the struggle didn’t simply play out in the legislative halls around the country. It played out in auditoriums, on the streets, and even in prisons. Following is the background on three women whose stories deserve to be known—examples of women who embody how hard the fight really was.

Alice Paul

Paul was the founder of the National Women’s Party, an organization to directly call for women’s suffrage. She organized a group called the Silent Sentinels, who picketed the White House hoping to force President Wilson to change his mind. This was the first continual protest outside the White House in American history, and it was not well-received by the opponents of equal suffrage, especially since the protestors were comparing Wilson to the German Kaiser for his opposition to the women.

Despite peacefully exercising their freedom of speech, they were arrested for the trumped up charge of obstructing traffic. Paul and others were sent to the Occoquan Workhouse and Jail. During the seven months they were sentenced to prison, they suffered abuse that can be considered torture as well as physical isolation. One particularly difficult night has been labeled the “Night of Terror.” Acting to bring attention to the horrible conditions and treatment, Alice Paul started a hunger strike. Prison officials, in order to prevent her from becoming a martyr to the movement, ordered her to be force fed raw eggs, using a tube, either inserted in her mouth or nostril while being held down. She endured twice a day feedings until the coverage by newspapers forced enough of a public outcry to change how the prisoners were treated. Paul and the others endured this treatment to get the right to vote.

Lucy Burns

Burns worked with Alice Paul and was among the protesters who picketed outside the White House. She too was arrested and sent to the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia. When she protested the poor treatment, the guards brutally beat her and other women, dragging them from their cells and even chaining them to the wall. Despite this and other harsh treatment, Burns continued fighting to get the right to vote.

Inez Milholland

Milholland was a lawyer and suffragist who became famous as a speech maker and organizer of suffrage events. She famously led the largest public parade for women’s suffrage in Washington, D.C. She even rode a white horse in the parade.

Few suffragists worked as tirelessly or with greater effort than Milholland to persuade Americans that women deserved the right to vote. During a cross-country speaking tour in 1916, she collapsed from exhaustion in the middle of a speech in Los Angeles. Despite receiving treatment at Good Samaritan Hospital, she never recovered and died soon afterward. She was only 30 years old. Her final words were reportedly, “President Wilson, how long must women wait for liberty?” Americans were shocked by her death, and her actions and memory became an inspiration for those fighting for women’s suffrage. Many used her death as a motivating factor to continue the push for the right to vote.

The great challenges faced by these women weren’t just experienced by the leaders of the movement, but by the rank and file members as well. More than 5,000 women participated in the parade mentioned earlier that was organized by Inez Milholland. They created floats and organized marching bands; many dressed in historical costumes or carried suffragette banners, pennants and sashes.

During the parade, men began to harass the women and obstruct the parade. Women were infamously cursed, grabbed, pushed, tripped, obstructed as well as subjected to lewd and offensive comments. More than 300 women had treatable injuries. The greatest injustice of the day was the fact that police officers refused to intervene on behalf of the women and watched as this unfolded. Conditions deteriorated so quickly that cavalry, from nearby Fort Myer, had to be summoned to return order to the streets. All because these women wanted the right to vote.

Thanks as always for reading the History Lowdown. And for the record, I am happy to share my birthday with such an important event. In fact, I would say I am honored. I hope if you are not registered to vote, reading this has inspired you to register. If you are registered, but you don’t take advantage of the opportunity to vote, please do so. Think about what these women endured. Think about the length of the struggle. Think about what it took to gain the right to vote. It should never be taken for granted by anyone.

Similar events took place for the 200th anniversary, the Bicentennial, in 1976. It was a welcome and highly anticipated celebration after the unsettling events of the early 1970s, such as Vietnam and Watergate. One hundred years earlier, in 1876, the Centennial celebration brought similar joy and revelry. President Grant called for a national day of reflection and gratitude. The marquee event was the Centennial Exposition held in Philadelphia. Ten million visitors attended the event during 1876 and saw representative displays from 37 other countries honoring America. Attendees even saw new inventions, including the telephone and typewriter.

Unfortunately, Grant’s day of reflection and gratitude was interrupted by tragic news from the American West—news that not only shocked those in attendance at the Centennial Exhibition, but those across the country. The event was so shocking that it has become an often remembered part of American history as well as one in which the facts have become entangled with myth and folklore. It’s an event that nearly everyone knows something about, but most do not know the full details of the event. Have you guessed what the event was from 1876? It was the Battle of the Little Bighorn, or as it is commonly known, Custer‘s Last Stand.

The battle took place June 25 and 26, but in 1876 it took another week for the news to travel to the urban centers of the East Coast like Philadelphia. It certainly was demoralizing news in the middle of such a grand celebration. That’s not a statement supporting or an indictment against the government policy toward Native Americans in the 19th century, it’s just an observation of fact at the time. While it would take hundreds of pages to fully trace the events leading up to the battle, the engagement itself and the aftermath, I will attempt to do so here in a condensed version by examining the leaders, reviewing the events and dispelling some of the inaccuracies.

Basic Facts

The Battle of the Little Bighorn, fought on June 25–26, 1876, was one of the major battles of the Great Sioux War of 1876. The U.S. Army’s 7th Cavalry Regiment, consisting of about 700 officers and enlisted men in the field, was operating as part of a larger campaign to locate large Native American encampments, prevent them from leaving the area and compel groups that were considered outside federal control to return to their assigned reservations. On June 25, approximately 210 soldiers from five companies were killed when they attacked a large village along the Little Bighorn River. The village contained an estimated 7,000–8,000 people, including roughly 1,500–2,000 Lakota, Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors. The five companies involved in the main attack, under Custer‘s direct command, were destroyed. Overall, the U.S. Army suffered 268 killed and 55 wounded, including soldiers who later died of their wounds. Native American casualties are much less certain; estimates commonly range from 60 to more than 100 warriors killed, with additional wounded. The battle ended with a decisive victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho, but the U.S. Army’s larger campaign continued and eventually resulted in the surrender or confinement of most of the participating groups.

The Leaders: U.S. Government

George Armstrong Custer

George Armstrong Custer graduated from West Point in 1861 and immediately entered the Union Army during the Civil War. He quickly gained a reputation as an aggressive and bold cavalry officer, sometimes to the point of recklessness, and rose to the rank of brevet major general of volunteers by the end of the war. Military historians consider his civil war campaigns successful, including playing a key role in the Gettysburg battle when his troops prevented J.E.B. Stuart’s cavalry from attacking the Union rear on July 3. Since many of my readers live within an easy driving distance of Gettysburg, the East Cavalry Battlefield is one of the least visited sites and a place to go if you would like some peace and quiet compared to other parts of the battlefield. As a leader, Custer always led from the front.

After the Civil War, Custer returned to his regular army rank and became lieutenant colonel of the 7th Cavalry. Although inaccurate, he is often referred to as General Custer in 1876 because of his attainment of the rank of general, which was a temporary battlefield promotion, during the Civil War. When the army downsized after the war, he returned to his original pre-war rank.

If you are from my hometown of Altoona, it’s worth noting that his cousin Benjamin Custer moved to Altoona in 1854 and was the Chief Clerk for Motive Power (locomotives) for the Pennsylvania Railroad. Benjamin remained here and was a civic leader for the remainder of his life until 1898. Local folklore includes stories of George visiting his cousin Benjamin in Altoona, Pennsylvania, but I have not found documentation that provides evidence he visited the area.

Marcus Reno
Marcus Albert Reno (1834–1889) was a U.S. Army officer and veteran of the Civil War. By 1876, he was a major and served as second-in-command of the 7th Cavalry under George Custer. At the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Reno commanded the first major attack on the Native American village but was forced to withdraw and later joined Benteen’s command on the defensive position.

Frederick Benteen

Frederick William Benteen (1834–1898) was a career U.S. Army officer and Civil War veteran who served as a captain in the 7th Cavalry. During the Little Bighorn campaign, he commanded several companies of the regiment and was ordered by Custer to scout toward the south. Benteen eventually joined Major Reno’s troops on the defensive hilltop and remained there during the fighting. It is important to note that Benteen frequently disagreed with Custer, believing Custer’s actions were too risky.

The Leaders: Native Americans

While the 7th Calvary was under the unified command of George Custer, there was no such unification of command for the Native Americans. They were a large coalition of Lakota (Sioux), Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho rather than a single tribe acting under one commander. Also, their name for this engagement was the Battle of the Greasy Grass.

Sitting Bull (Hunkpapa Lakota)

Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota spiritual leader and prominent opponent of U.S. efforts to confine indigenous people to reservations. He had a powerful religious and political influence among the Lakota and their allies. Although he was present with the large village during the battle, he was not a battlefield commander directing the warriors’ movements.

Crazy Horse (Oglala Lakota)
Crazy Horse was one of the most respected war leaders of the Oglala Lakota. Known for his courage and skill as a warrior, he played a major role in the fighting at the Greasy Grass. His leadership helped rally Lakota and Cheyenne warriors against the 7th Cavalry, particularly during the fighting against Custer’s force.

Gall (Hunkpapa Lakota)
Gall was a prominent Hunkpapa Lakota war leader and a close associate of Sitting Bull. He was an experienced warrior who fought aggressively during the battle.

Rain-in-the-Face (Hunkpapa Lakota)
Rain-in-the-Face was a Hunkpapa Lakota warrior who fought against the United States during the Great Sioux War. He was present at the Greasy Grass fighting and later became widely known through accounts and popular literature concerning the battle. Some stories credit him personally with the killing of Tom Custer, George’s brother, but those accounts are unverified.

Lame White Man (Cheyenne)
The origin of the unusual name Lame White Man has been lost to history. He was a Southern Cheyenne leader and warrior who participated in the battle. He was among the Cheyenne leaders killed during the fighting.

Two Moons (Northern Cheyenne)
Two Moons was a Northern Cheyenne chief who was present during the Battle of the Greasy Grass. He later became one of the best-known Cheyenne leaders to provide accounts of the conflict.

Crow King (Hunkpapa Lakota)
Crow King was a Hunkpapa Lakota war leader who fought at the Greasy Grass. He was associated with Sitting Bull’s Hunkpapa community and participated actively in the defense of the village. This is an important consideration to keep in mind about this battle—that the Native Americans were defending their village.

Low Dog (Miniconjou Lakota)
Low Dog was a Miniconjou Lakota war leader who participated in the battle. He was among the leaders who continued resistance during the Great Sioux War and later surrendered.

On a side note, in the 1990s when it was popular slang to refer to someone as “dawg,” some of my students called me “Lowe Dawg.” At first, I would say, “Well, actually, Low Dog was …” They would usually give me that look of “Do you have to turn everything into a history lesson?”

The Battle

The Battle of the Little Bighorn was fought on June 25–26, 1876, in present-day Montana. Custer’s companies attacked from the east, while Major Marcus Reno attacked with 140 men from the south. Captain Frederick Benteen led a similar number of men to scout to the west of the village.

Reno’s men attacked the village on horseback but dismounted to continue the attack after crossing the Little Bighorn River. Due to the overwhelming number of warriors responding from the village, Reno ordered his men to remount and retreat. At the same time, Custer was mistakenly attacking the center of the village, believing he was at the end of the village. Like Reno, he ordered his men to withdraw out of the valley and to the top of a nearby ridge. During the chaotic withdrawal, he sent a messenger to Captain Benteen saying, “Come on, big village, be quick, bring packs.” Benteen, unaware of Custer’s desperate situation, first waited for the supply train to arrive with the packs. He was about three miles away from Custer, where he was eventually reunited with Reno and the remnants of his command. They remained three miles away from Custer in a defensive position on a hilltop.

The number of attacking warriors continued to increase and converge on Custer’s position. By the time the men reached the top of the ridge, now known as Last Stand Hill, only Custer and approximately 40 men were still alive. The order was given to “dig rifle pits”—shallow holes in the ground for cover—an act of absolute desperation. The fighting soon ended when all of the troopers were killed. The decisive fighting on June 25 lasted less than an hour.

Relief forces did not find the bodies of Custer and his men until two days later. They were buried in shallow graves, though many were later reburied elsewhere.

Another note for readers from my hometown: Private Jacob Henry Genhart of Altoona was killed in the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

What went wrong for Custer?

Dividing His Forces: Custer split his 7th Cavalry into three separate detachments under himself, Major Marcus Reno and Captain Frederick Benteen. This fragmentation prevented them from supporting each other and allowed Native American warriors to defeat the fractured units.

Underestimating Enemy Numbers: Custer ignored reports from his Crow and Arikara scouts regarding the unprecedented size of the encampment. He believed he was facing a few hundred warriors when the village actually contained between 1,500 and 2,500 fighting men.

Rejecting Heavy Firepower: Before departing on the campaign, Custer refused the offer of a battery of Gatling guns and additional battalions from the 2nd Cavalry. He believed the rapid-fire guns would slow his march and that his regiment could handle any force they encountered.

Loss of Tactical Surprise: Custer originally planned to hide his troops and attack on June 26. Upon realizing his presence had been detected by native scouts, he rushed into a premature attack on June 25 to prevent the village from scattering, sacrificing a coordinated battle plan.

Poor Terrain Reconnaissance: Custer attacked without mapping the rugged terrain of the Little Bighorn Valley. Having walked through the area of the battle myself, while it looks relatively flat with small hills, there are deep ravines and ridges that make it difficult to see beyond your immediate position.

Custer Himself: Custer’s own arrogance and drive for glory played a significant role in his defeat.

The Myths and Legends

Native American accounts and archaeological records are the most helpful tools in deciphering fact from fiction in this case. The National Park Service, which preserves the area, has done extensive research on claims about the battle. The following is a list addressing them.

1) Custer and all of his men made an organized last stand together on Last Stand Hill.

Myth. There are images, familiar to most due to their prominent use, that show Custer and roughly 200 men gathered in a tight, defensive circle on the hill. In reality, Custer’s five companies were actually spread across a considerable area. Archaeological evidence indicates fighting occurred along Calhoun Hill, Battle Ridge, Deep Ravine and other locations. The defense was certainly not organized in a neat circle as it is often portrayed.

2) Custer’s men fought until they ran out of ammunition.

Legend. This became one of the classic heroic elements of the story. There is no convincing archaeological evidence of this. It is, however, a better explanation for Custer’s defeat in 19th century America when victory was expected.

3) Custer and some of his men committed suicide rather than be captured.

Myth. One story claimed Custer was wounded, unable to escape, and used his final cartridge on himself. There is no reliable evidence that Custer, or others, killed himself. One Native account states some soldiers took their own lives, but it is unverified in other accounts. The National Park Service states that exactly how Custer died remains unknown.

4) Rain-in-the-Face killed Custer and cut out his heart.

Myth. Rain-in-the-Face later claimed to have killed Custer, and the dramatic story that he removed Custer’s heart became famous. There was no evidence of a missing heart when Custer’s body was found. Something was done to Custer‘s body, but I’ll address that in the appropriate myth.

5) Crazy Horse personally killed Custer.

Myth. This became another popular version of Custer’s death. There is no reliable evidence, however, that Crazy Horse killed Custer. As with Rain-in-the-Face, the identity of the individual who actually killed Custer cannot be established with certainty.

6) The Seventh Cavalry was completely annihilated.

Myth. Custer’s five companies were destroyed, but the entire 7th Cavalry was not. The majority of Reno’s and Benteen’s troopers survived and fought a separate defensive battle for roughly two days. The surviving portion of the regiment was eventually relieved by General Alfred Terry on June 27.

7) Reno and Benteen simply abandoned Custer.

Myth. This is one of the most persistent controversies. Benteen was excoriated in the press for not coming to Custer’s defense, but Benteen was never court-martialed for not following Custer’s order to “come on” and “be quick”—especially after his position was attacked by Native Americans as well. The fact that the two men did not like each other added to suspicions about Benteen’s actions, but the reality is that both were professional soldiers, and though they disagreed, neither one would’ve intentionally abandoned the other.

8) Custer’s men were brutally mutilated.

Partly true. The extent is exaggerated in popular culture. Some bodies were mutilated, and the NPS confirms this, but later accounts frequently exaggerated the extent and nature of the mutilations. There is also a story that Cheyenne women punctured Custer’s ears so he could hear better in his next life and not break his word. There is no evidence of this.

Many of the mutilation stories were created to fit the idea that the indigenous people were savages. Truth is that both sides acted in a vicious manner, justifying their actions by the conduct of the other.

9) Comanche was the only survivor of Custer’s command.

Myth. Comanche was the horse of Captain Myles Keogh. The horse was found two days after the battle, badly wounded, but he was nursed back to health and given a military retirement with the order never to be ridden again. Comanche was widely promoted as the “sole survivor,” achieving a sort of celebrity status. In reality, while many horses were killed, numerous horses survived the battle and were used by Native Americans after being captured.

The Battlefield Today

Jen and I visited the site, and it is preserved as Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, and you can walk much of the actual ground where the battle occurred. There is a visitor center with historical information and artifacts, which is typical of National Park Service sites. The most popular place on the battlefield to visit is Last Stand Hill. There is a large granite monument there to the Seventh Calvary as well as a fenced area with white granite markers, marking the approximate spots where some of the fallen soldiers were found.

There is a 4 ½-mile driving tour that takes you to other spots on the battlefield, including the Reno/Benteen Hill. The area is well-preserved and looks pretty much like it would’ve appeared in 1876. You certainly won’t encounter wax museums, gift shops and double-decker tour buses like you do at other popular battlefields like Gettysburg.

There is a national cemetery located near the visitor center that includes veterans from 20th century wars as well as the 19th century. The local Altoona resident who was killed at the battle is buried there. While a marker honors where Custer fell at this battle, if you are looking for Custer’s grave, it’s at West Point.

A relatively new addition to the battlefield during our visit was a Native American memorial honoring the five tribes present: the three opposing Custer as well as the Crow and Arikata scouts that accompanied the 7th Cavalry. Its theme is Peace Through Unity. Red granite markers were also added indicating where it is believed Native American warriors fell.

Thanks, as always, for reading another addition of the History Lowdown.

It makes sense that members of each generation think their generational experience is best. First, they don’t really have an appreciation for the generation’s experience that came before them other than a historical perspective. As a historian, I think it would’ve been fascinating to live during the 1950s, but I don’t have that ability to really experience it. Conversely, each generation gets to witness the generations that follow them often making observations about why their generation was better. Sometimes stereotypes make their way into the comparisons as well. From my perspective, though, I would’ve liked to have witnessed earlier generational experiences. I think life as a member of Gen X has been the best. If you are a Gen Xer and are reading this, you will likely agree. If you are not a member of Gen X, I would likewise expect many of you to disagree. Gen X has a series of factors that describe who we are.

The label Gen X was originally meant to describe a post-Baby Boom generation that defied traditional categorization making a general description difficult. Nonetheless, those in Gen X typically describe themselves with the following, more specific criteria.

1. Gen Xers were raised to be independent.

This independence may be because Gen X is often called the “latchkey generation.” Many had two working parents or spent time alone after school. They argue this taught them many positive lessons:

• Self-reliance

• Problem-solving

• Responsibility at an early age

• Confidence without constant supervision.

Those in Gen X often contrast their upbringing with stereotypes that Millennials and Gen Alpha have been more closely supervised by parents—to their detriment.

2. Gen Xers experienced both the analog and digital worlds.

Gen X grew up with these as their staples:

• Rotary and push-button phones

• Vinyl records, 8-tracks and cassette tapes, CDs plus VHS and DVDs

• Library visits and multi-volume encyclopedias.

Then they adapted to digital formats:

• Personal computers

• The internet

• Smartphones

• Social media.

Many see this as giving them flexibility because they understand life before and after the digital revolution.

3. Gen Xers value privacy.

Many Gen Xers say they prefer the following:

• Keeping personal matters offline

• Less dependence on social media

• Greater separation between public and private life.

They sometimes criticize younger generations for sharing too much online.

4. Gen Xers pride themselves on resilience.

Gen X often describes itself as successful from having had these experiences:

• Learned from failure

• Worked through economic recessions

• Adapted to rapid technological change

• Managed careers without expecting constant recognition.

While these are positive character-builders, this can also be seen as contributing to the stereotype that Gen X is overly pragmatic.

5. Gen Xers see themselves as skeptical thinkers.

This healthy wariness can be attributed to growing up during these events:

• The Cold War

• Political scandals

• Corporate power and downsizing.

Many Gen Xers developed a reputation for questioning authority rather than trusting institutions automatically.

6. Gen Xers strongly believe their culture—including music, movies and fashion—is the best. Growing up they experienced the following:

• The birth of MTV

• The rise of home movies and VCRs

• Diverse music, from rock to rap to R&B and the golden age of pop

• Movies that were cultural touchstones

• Video games and arcades as a benign diversion

As much as I could write about Gen X music and pop culture, a fun way to look at Gen X are the everyday games we played and how these games shaped us. When Gen Xers came home from school, we changed into our “play clothes” and headed outside to play games that turned into life lessons.

Duck, Duck, Goose

The old classic of selecting a person to quickly jump up and chase you before you take their spot. An online petition attempted to ban this game for safety. Others say it singles out the slow kids. It was just a game for us.

Tag

There was flashlight tag, freeze tag, chain tag and so many other varieties that I can’t list them all. Concerns have been raised about the dangers in frantically running about so that the rules for some have been changed to only walking. Better not tell those who are extra cautious that selecting people to be “It” was often more of a slap than a tag.

Red Rover

This game has been labeled dangerous by several children’s hospitals across the country as a “contact sport.” True, it may look like players in this game are attempting to decapitate opponents by “clotheslining” them with a chain of locked hands, but life is a powerful teacher.

Dodgeball

You may have guessed this would be on the list. One criticism is that dodgeball encourages bullying by targeting others. It does literally make targets of those considered physically weaker. I wasn’t necessarily thinking of that as a kid; I just recall the excitement of an intended target trying to jump over a thrown ball only to be hit mid-air and tumble over. We had a version we played in sixth grade called speedball where you threw the ball as hard as possible at someone else standing in a circle and they had to catch it instead of dodge it.

The Slip and Slide

The “slide” part wasn’t so bad, but the “slip” part has resulted in it being banned. Of course people also found ways to make the “slide” part dangerous, like “surfing” down a slip and slide—a sure way to increase the risk of broken bones or concussions. The instructions actually stated not to use anything other than water, such as baby oil. It was a bad idea to print that and give people ideas. True story: I saw my dad go down a homemade slip and slide when he was in his 60s.

Snowball Fights

Anything with the word “fight” is going to trigger a modern day backlash, but add to the fact that you are launching what can become hard projectiles at others, and the snowball fight becomes an easy target for those seeking to ban dangerous games. I recall that during my freshman year in college, the first time it snowed, a major snowball fight broke out in my quad. Despite what could be described as a violent free-for-all, everyone I knew that participated had a good time. It was a respite from studying for finals. Looking back, thankfully no one was injured.

War

Sometimes called “Cowboys and Indians” and even “Cops and Robbers,” this was a simulated game of combat. Much of the criticism here comes from the fact kids were using toy guns or anything that looked like a toy gun. I’m sure I used a stick a time or two. Looking back, I think the creativity of planning and carrying out a strategy was beneficial and made us more creative. It was certainly less violent than many of today’s video games.

Musical Chairs

For this one, I get it. Pulling a chair out as someone is trying to sit down could potentially hurt someone. The first time you crashed to the ground, trying to sit, you quickly learned to balance the excitement of the game with the danger of falling to the floor. Nevertheless, it was a staple of Gen X childhood that we didn’t question. I even recall playing it in Sunday school classrooms.

Kickball

Kickball was a staple during playground time when I was in elementary school. It has the rules of baseball, but you kick a rubber ball instead, and it has a dodgeball-like component since you hit the base runner with the ball. Nothing brought more excitement in sixth grade than finding out we were headed outside to play kickball. The dodgeball component has been criticized, but probably even more worthy of banning is how we would pick teams in a draft system where someone would inevitably be left unchosen and had to be taken last. Anytime you got picked close to the end, it was demoralizing.

Fumble Rumble

This was a combination of running a football and survival of the fittest. One person with the football against everybody else. We also called this “smear the queer.” I should mention at this point that none of the kids in my neighborhood considered this a derogatory insult for any group of people. It was a game and the name rhymed. It was a rough game between getting hit and then people piling on. You learned quickly to develop a strategy. One fellow in my neighborhood was Carl—nobody could tackle Carl. Carl died last year, and I’m sure he’s up there dragging people around in a fun game of fumble rumble. Even though the name has changed to “keep away,” you don’t see much of the game today—just like you don’t see many kids playing outside and learning teamwork, communication skills, sportsmanship, strategy making, building friendships and the value of physical exercise.

German philosopher Frederick Nietzche introduced us to the idea that “what doesn’t kill us makes us stronger.” These games made us a little stronger, a little faster, a little smarter and more creative. Thankfully, neither myself or any of my friends were injured, so what are now controversial games are just fun memories for Gen Xers.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown. What generation do you think is best and what are your fondest memories? Hopefully this column refreshed for you some happy memories, regardless of your generation.

1. We decided to visit three islands—Oahu, Maui and Hawaii, or as it is more commonly known, the Big Island. We spent five days on each, and Jen and I had a hard time picking a favorite. For folks who spend most of their vacation on the beach, staying on one island makes more sense, but we tend to do a variety of activities, so this allowed us to sample each island with enough time to do what we wanted. Each of the three islands is notably different. Oahu is the busiest with the city of Honolulu as a major metropolitan area perfect for those that like urban life. Waikiki, by the way, is kind of like the beach version of urban life. Oahu also has plenty of history, including Pearl Harbor, Iolani Palace and the Bishop Museum. The North Shore of Oahu is more relaxed for those looking for a change of pace. The island of Maui has a great balance between beautiful scenery and smaller towns that offer great food and shopping—like Oahu without the crowds. The Big Island also has nice beaches and smaller towns with Hilo and Kona being the two largest and representing the East Coast and West Coast of the Island. Also the home of Volcanoes National Park and the active Mount Kilauea, considerable portions of the island are covered by lava rock without greenery. The Big Island continues to increase in size as more lava flows. Kilauea even erupted with lava fountains during our visit.

2. Hawaiian Pizza was invented in Canada. Many a friendly argument has been had over the merits of this culinary concoction, but I can attest that our tour guide on the Road to Hana said, “Stop making us look bad and labeling that as our pizza.”

3. The same guide, who was great, saw some mainlanders climbing a hillside with no view at the top. It was a steep, unpaved climb. He shook his head and called it “the whitest thing I’ve ever seen.” We all laughed. You can certainly drive this road yourself, but I would give 100% recommendation to having a guide. They know where to stop and how to navigate the 600 hairpin turns and 59 narrow, single-lane bridges. The Road to Hana is often listed on those internet lists of must-do activities, and I agree. It’s not Hana itself that amazes but everything along the way.

4. Brian, our guide from the Maui Gold Pineapple farm, explained how to tell if a pineapple is ripe, which included advising us to stop knocking on them. He added to stop knocking on melons too. It doesn’t tell you anything. The tour was fascinating. Pineapple is actually a berry, and when the eyes covering the outside are flat instead of bumpy and the exterior is yellow, it’s ripe. If it is soft, it is too ripe and can actually start to mold on the bottom.

5. Brian also told us that, sadly, no pineapples on the mainland come from Hawaii. They are cheaper to farm and import from Central and South America now. You can order Maui Gold Pineapples for home delivery, but it’s a bit pricey. They are so good though. We had fresh pineapple for many days at our lodging.

6. There were also a number of other fresh tropical fruits available that make island life such a great way to live. Guava, mango, passion fruit and coconut are just the best known. One of those new fruits we were introduced to was the apple banana. It’s a smaller banana that is a bit sweeter. It has a smoother texture that gives it the name the silk banana. Some claim it has a hint of apple in its taste, but I didn’t get that. Give one a try if you get the chance.

7. I had either forgotten or didn’t notice from my previous visit, but there are feral chickens everywhere. There are also feral pigs, donkeys and goats. The pigs can be quite vicious, which fortunately I didn’t find out first-hand.

8. I enjoyed all the Hawaiian food we tried, including Loco Moco—though it was so filling that it was hard to move after eating all of it. If you don’t know about this Hawaiian comfort food, go ahead and look it up. We also had shaved ice, which is much more like ice cream than a snow cone. There was plenty of fresh fish too. I tried everything at the buffet we attended on the Big Island. I even ate raw fish, and it was actually good.

9. Afraid of sharks? A marine biologist at the Maui aquarium told us that you were statistically more likely to get bitten by a person in New York City than by a shark in Hawaii.

10. My visit to Pearl Harbor, the World War II Submarine Memorial and the Pacific Aviation Museum—continued to have an emotional impact on me after studying the war for so many years. I was there before with my grandfather, but so much has been added, including the USS Missouri. It was an honor to walk on the deck where the Japanese surrender was signed. The symbolism of having the Missouri near the USS Arizona where 1,177 men were killed at the start of the war is obvious. It was important to me to pay respect to all the local men lost from Altoona, especially those who are memorialized there, including two local men killed on the USS Arizona—George Wolf and John Lipple. John Pensyl and Brooks Brubaker were also killed during the 12-7-41 attack. At the Pacific Submarine Memorial, which lists the submarines and their crews lost in World War II, I also found the names of local men who were lost in the silent service—a term for those who served on submarines. At Pearl Harbor, I was emotionally impacted on a level that is hard to describe when I turned to my right and discovered a Japanese man praying at the USS Arizona Memorial. I feel it is fair to say it was a moment of emotional healing for me. This is a must-visit place if you come to Hawaii. There is a reason it’s the #1 attraction on Oahu.

11. I also visited Punchbowl Cemetery—considered the Arlington of the Pacific—for the first time. If you have seen the original Hawaii Five-0, the cemetery is prominently featured in the opening. During my visit to Punchbowl Cemetery and the Courtyards of the Missing located there, I took time to honor a number of local men who remain MIA from World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War. That includes Sheldon Schultz who was lost in Vietnam but was recovered in 2006. There were other well-known names I recognized too, including Dorie Miller, the African American mess attendant who famously manned a machine gun during the attack on Pearl Harbor; he went missing in action in 1943 when his ship was sunk. I also spent some time in silence at the chapel there, reflecting on the 34,000 grave sites as well as the 28,000 names of those missing in action that are honored at this site. A cemetery is not a typical stop on a vacation, but it’s important to remember as we are able to travel free without restriction who guaranteed and preserved our freedoms. I was very happy my travel mates all agreed on the importance of that stop.

12. We picked up many of our groceries at local Walmarts. The one on Maui stood out most because they had electronic dance music playing very loudly—a completely different vibe from the Walmart in Altoona. The one in Hilo, Hawaii, also had music playing, but it was relaxing Hawaiian music. The music didn’t prevent me from noticing how expensive groceries were, which I suppose is to be expected since they have to ship everything in from the mainland. Also, Hawaiians refer to it as “the mainland” or “the 48.” Don’t refer to the contiguous United States as “the states” since Hawaii is also a state and Hawaiians find that reference offensive.

13. In addition to chickens being everywhere, there are also an abundance of lizards—geckos, skinks and anoles—everywhere. We had one inside our condo in Maui that Jen and Gretchen captured to release outside. We had a second one get in after hanging out on the entry door and we never found him; hopefully he wasn’t a stowaway. They are harmless, and my only fear was accidentally stepping on one.

14. Hawaiian people are much more conscious of the land and sea, especially properly caring for it. They even use reef safe sunscreen to protect the coral and its growth. On Oahu and Maui, the grocery stores do not give out plastic bags, so you have to bring your own or buy reusable totes. On the Big Island, they gave out paper bags. At least the Walmart bags we needed to buy for groceries were Hawaiian-themed.

15. There are no snakes in Hawaii, and they take keeping it that way very seriously to not disrupt the ecosystem. One person who brought a snake to the islands—and it got loose—was fined and sentenced to 10 years in prison.

16. There are hardly any predatory animals in Hawaii, but oddly enough, the only one with significant numbers is the mongoose. In fact, it was the first time I saw a mongoose. With their reputations, one would think they might control a snake problem if they had them.

17. There is plenty of marine life to observe. The sea turtles are revered and protected. Seeing manta rays at night was a cool experience also.

18. One more note on non-human living creatures. It seems every island has an abundance of cockroaches. They are an invasive species along with the little @*@! In this photo. Hawaii does work to eliminate invasive species more so than other locations. I suppose no place is perfect.

19. Spending some time at a Buddhist temple was a very enriching experience. Walking the grounds, entering the temple without our shoes and lighting incense was part of the experience. Jen and I both rang the bonsho. Spending time learning about this Eastern faith was an important cultural experience. If on Oahu, visit Byodo-In Temple. While the place we visited has become touristy, the gardens and grounds are beautiful.

20. I learned a very helpful little poem, though it didn’t save me. It’s in relation to getting into water in a rocky area and knowing what rocks to step on: “If it’s green or brown, you’re going down; stay on the gray and you’ll be okay.” I did well getting to the edge of the water around a waterfall, but an important consideration is that once in the water, you can’t see what color the rocks are when the waterfall is churning everything up. Despite the fall I took, it was so cool to experience a waterfall like that.

21. Related to number 20: While the ocean water is very warm at 78 to 79°, the water coming off the mountains in the waterfalls is cold, especially when you fall in. Apparently, I performed a somewhat graceful but somewhat humorous dance trying to catch myself before I went in. Fortunately, Jen did not record it. I did get a great photo of me completely in the water at the waterfall—and a nice laceration on my knee.

22. Jen and I have made a habit of checking out sunrises at different places we visit. I think the sunrise at the summit of Haleakala National Park is the best we’ve ever witnessed—especially since we were above the cloud line at the peak as it creates the most amazing colors. A Park Ranger also did a traditional Hawaiian chant to welcome the sun as it rose.

23. Climbing to the top of the iconic Diamond Head was beautiful, and the trail had the bonus of a WWII-era pillbox you could explore. We were grateful that we just beat a rainstorm that would have marred the view, but it did make for a slippery climb back down the trail. Diamond Head is definitely a must-do.

24. Speaking of rain, I told Jen we would be there during the dry season so we wouldn’t need our raincoats—a conclusion from my previous trip. I didn’t realize there is a dry side and wet side on each island called the leeward side and windward side. Lesson learned. Sorry, honey.

25. The pace in Hawaii is very relaxed, and that’s probably not surprising to anyone. The speed limit on the interstate is capped at 60 mph, the lowest in the country. Other highways are typically 50 or even 40 mph. People don’t use car horns to tell other drivers to move faster or get out of the way. Drivers stop for pedestrians who thank them with a quick 🤙 (shaka).

26. To enforce the point above for tourists, there are speed bumps everywhere, even on roads where the speed limit is 30 mph. Some are called speed cushions and are wider than speed bumps. They also have speed humps. Officially they are classified as “traffic calming” devices. Hitting them faster than the speed limit reminds one quickly why they are there.

27. They do have a couple nude beaches. The captain of our snorkeling boat had a memorable quip while moving along the Maui Coast: “That’s Molokini on your right and no bikini on your left. We won’t go any closer to shore at this point because there are some things you should never see and can never erase from your memory.” Other beaches had reminders like this photo.

28. Attending a luau was fun. It was a chance to dress up and have a night out. There was lots of dancing, music and Polynesian culture. The food was good and it was all you can eat. I recommend trying one once for the experience. No need to do one again.

29. Kona Coffee, produced in a 5 x 30-mile area on the Big Island, is among the best coffee in the world. This, of course, is not my observation but that of others. I don’t like coffee at all, but I was a good sport. We toured two different coffee farms, and I even ate a fresh coffee bean—which was awful. The other three members of the group loved it, so I was happy to go. If you like coffee, this is for you. Both tours had free samples.

30. Somebody was stung by a Portuguese Man-o-war at a beach we were headed to. I was impressed that officials were telling everyone before they paid for parking, especially since parking is expensive in most places due to limited space. I learned these creatures, similar to jelly fish, are most likely to sting 6-8 days after a full moon.

31. There is one popular Hawaiian food item I did not try. Spam. Hawaiians have loved this stuff ever since it was introduced there during World War II. The grocery stores have entire sections of it, including varieties I had never seen, including Hickory Smoked, Hot and Spicy, Jalapeño, Teriyaki, Black Pepper, Chorizo, Portuguese Sausage, Garlic and Bacon. Even McDonald’s serves an eggs and Spam breakfast. (No, I did not eat at McDonald’s when I was in Hawaii.) Our Road to Hana tour guide joked that you knew your mom loved you if you found a Spam musabi in your lunch box—this is a favorite snack of grilled Spam and a block of sticky rice wrapped in nori (crisp seaweed).

32. Hawaiians take great pride in their history, and I wanted to learn more about it while we were there. We took time to visit the Iolani Palace, the only Royal Palace on American soil. We also visited the Bishop Museum and several other historic sites related to Hawaiian history. When I was there as a teenager, my Uncle Tom recommended to my cousin and me that we visit the Bishop Museum and learn something about Hawaiian history. We opted to spend more time on the beach that day, and needless to say, he was disappointed. I hope he knows. I finally fulfilled that obligation, and I was glad that I did.

33. I was curious if the pride in Hawaiian history was also evident with Hawaiian students. I asked that exact question to Hawaiians working at a Hawaiian temple we visited. They shared that for many years younger Hawaiians were not interested in their heritage or history, but that changed recently when they required students to learn more about their history starting in the fourth grade. They are even taught to speak Hawaiian. They also shared that the schools invest in taking the students to historic sites on the other islands, even if that means flying. I believe we as Americans could learn something from this—especially since social studies and history have been essentially demoted in the elementary grades in place of test preparation.

Aloha and Mahalo (Thank You) as always for reading the History Lowdown. It was a great trip. If you get a chance to visit Hawaii, I recommend it.

The year 1776 evokes memories of a celebratory time when American patriots approved the Declaration of Independence. After all, we do celebrate July 4—Independence Day—every year with picnics, parades and fireworks. The truth of that year, however, is much more grim.

Beginning in 1763, the British colonies in North America and the British government had navigated, not so successfully, through a series of disputes. Though both sides had hoped to avoid armed conflict, war broke out in the spring of 1775, and by the start of 1776, Great Britain had declared the 13 colonies were in an open state of rebellion. The Proclamation of Rebellion allowed the British government to pursue all-out war to suppress the rebellion and to punish those responsible who were now officially labeled traitors. By law, the traitors could be punished with death. It was very disconcerting for those fighting to consider the risks if they lost the war. Loss would bring severe consequences, including the possibility of losing property or even your home being destroyed since the fighting was taking place in American cities, towns and villages—and there was also the real threat of being wounded or killed. It was already a monumentally difficult task to defeat the most powerful army and navy in the world, but imagine the added pressure that losing meant you may end up at the wrong end of a long rope. It would have been easy to give up and walk away.

Asking men to leave their homes and join an army to face these challenges is quite the request—especially when that left the women and children alone and responsible for everything. We know that happened in later wars, but since the entire household, including all food production, was left to the women and children, the challenge cannot be discounted. One must also keep in mind that there was no draft and no official requirement to take up arms. In fact, colonists were about equally divided in thirds in regard to fighting for independence. About 1/3 were Patriots, who supported the idea of independence and we’re willing to fight for it. The second 1/3 were loyalists, sometimes called Tories. These were the folks that opposed independence and were steadfast in their loyalty to the British Crown. Some of these folks were willing to fight to remain loyal, thus making the American Revolution a civil war. There were a number of battles that featured patriots fighting loyalists during the war. That fighting was typically brutal with each side burning farms and homes owned by the other side. When British General Gage was looking at the heights outside of Boston known as Bunker Hill, he asked the loyalist standing next to him if he knew who the man was commanding the rebel forces. The loyalist answered, “Yes, that’s my brother-in-law.”

The final 1/3 was made up of those who were neutral. John Adams called them mongrels. These were the folks who wanted no part of the fighting from either side and just wanted to be left alone. Raising an army to fight for independence was much more difficult than imagined, especially when you consider 2/3 of the population was eliminated from recruitment.

The army—or the Continental Army as it was called in 1776—was no longer an informal group, but by this time placed under the command of General George Washington. The status on January 1, 1776, found Washington’s Army in a stalemate with British forces who were holding Boston. The fact the army was in a position of stalemate might seem like a positive, considering the strength of the British army, but let’s take a deeper look. When Washington arrived outside of Boston to take command, he sent his wife a letter, exclaiming that the army was in such bad condition that he would rather be in the middle of nowhere “living in a wigwam” than in command of that army. He noted the army had a complete lack of discipline, many soldiers thinking that their volunteering to fight was good enough. There wasn’t even respect for officers. In one case, an officer commanded a soldier to move a large rock out of the common foot path in a camp outside of Boston. The soldier refused, so the officer had to do it himself. Discipline was not the only important component lacking—so was hygiene. In fact, most of the soldiers refused to wash their clothes, claiming it was “women’s work.” The lack of hygiene was compounded by the fact there were no uniforms and everyone seemed to wear something different, much of it in poor condition. Officers had to put a piece of white paper in their caps to denote the fact they were officers. Another problem for the Continental Army was a lack of supplies and a lack of a supply network. While the British faced difficulties in moving supplies across the Atlantic Ocean, they had no shortage of supplies to send—unlike the colonial patriots who had vast shortages.

Speaking of supplies, providing food for the army was even more difficult. There were days that rations consisted simply of what was labeled “fire cakes”—flour and water cooked on a hot rock from the fire. The water was not safe to drink, so soldiers were supplied with a ration of cider or spruce beer. The daily ration was just one quart. The daily ration of meat came from salted pork or salted fish. During summer and early fall, foraging could be done for fruits and vegetables, but during the winter and spring, they were nearly impossible to find. In general, rations were never delivered in the quantities needed or promised. The entire food supply was affected by the shortage of salt. The war prevented the importation of salt, and colonial efforts to produce salt by boiling salt water proved ineffective. The lack of food was a problem of greater significance than it was during the Great Depression.

Equally difficult to procure was saltpeter, an essential ingredient for gunpowder. Half of the letters written by George Washington to Congress, and to other prominent figures, included pleas for gunpowder and other munitions. The colonies were just not equipped to produce gunpowder—a major concern when trying to fight a war. It was such a concern that the first offensive action by the newly formed Continental Navy was a raid on a British outpost in the Caribbean to steal gunpowder. Lead was also considerably short of the amount needed to create musket balls—so much so that Washington authorized a fort to be built in the middle of Pennsylvania’s wilderness to mine lead. Fort Roberdeau, this lead mine fort, is a 15-minute drive from my house, and though it didn’t produce as much lead as hoped, it is another example of the remarkable effort to overcome the difficulties faced in 1776. One resource related to munitions that was in good supply was iron; however, the colonists proved they had little skill in forging artillery pieces. The majority of cannons cast in the early years of the war did not survive testing, let alone make it to the battlefield. The story of how Washington acquired a significant number of artillery pieces in 1776 is a great example of the daring nature of those seeking independence.

The largest fort in North America in 1775 was Fort Ticonderoga. It was the linchpin connecting New York and Canada. In 1775, it was occupied by British forces, though it had been built earlier by the French. It was equipped with approximately 100 artillery pieces and significant stores of ammunition. The fort was captured in 1775 by the combined forces of Ethan Allan and Benedict Arnold without losing a single American life. In fact, the British only had one sentry, and he quickly ran off without putting up a fight when the Americans appeared. The British simply did not expect an assault by the Americans across such difficult terrain. As much as the victory was significant, it wasn’t the victory itself that stands out as remarkable. It was Henry Knox getting the artillery pieces back to Boston—a 200-mile trip with no roads in the middle of winter. The journey was marked by relentless hardship. They endured brutal winter weather, including snowstorms, freezing rain and bitter cold that threatened frostbite and made equipment difficult to handle. The terrain was equally unforgiving as they navigated rough trails, dense forests and the steep slopes of the Berkshire Mountains, where wagons frequently slipped or became stuck. Crossing waterways such as the Hudson River added further danger as the ice was often unstable and could crack under the immense weight of the cannons. Those cannons—nearly 60 in total, some weighing over a ton—had to be hauled on sleds by oxen, making progress slow and physically exhausting. At the same time, Knox faced logistical challenges, including limited supplies for both his men and animals, which forced reliance on local support. All of this was compounded by the isolation and high stakes of the mission, carried out far from the main army under George Washington, where failure would have dealt a serious blow to the American cause. It was so important that when one of the cannons broke through the ice, they spent two days fishing it out of the freezing cold water. As an example of the extreme effort, when there were days when the weather was so bad the oxen couldn’t be used to move the artillery, men pulled the sleds with ropes. On March 5, 1776, the British forces inside Boston awoke to discover more than 50 artillery pieces surrounding them. Less than two weeks later, the British abandoned Boston, never to return.

Another struggle was that knowledge of medical care was lacking at the time. The Continental Army under Washington was greatly impacted by typhus, which was typically called “camp fever,” as well as dysentery and malaria. None of the three was the worst medical affliction of the time. That was smallpox. Smallpox was so devastating that General Washington famously stated it was more to be dreaded “than the Sword of the Enemy.” In 1776, the smallpox mortality rate for those infected was roughly 30%. Because the British and Hessian troops often came from areas where smallpox was endemic, they had higher natural immunity than the American recruits. An estimated 130,000 colonists died of smallpox during the Revolutionary War—with 1776 being the worst year. That year, 5% of the population died. For comparative purposes, the percentage of the population that died from COVID in its worst year (2020) was 0.11%.

About the only improvement for the Continental Army after the British fled Boston was a boost in morale. Many colonists celebrated the British evacuation, assuming the war was over, but Washington knew better. He guessed, and guessed correctly, that the British would move to New York City next. He immediately moved his forces from Boston to New York City to defend it. New York faced the full strength of the British Empire with its men led by General William Howe. What followed was a series of defeats, retreats and near disasters that nearly destroyed the American war effort.

In the summer of 1776, the British assembled a massive invasion force in New York—over 30,000 troops that included experienced soldiers and Hessian mercenaries. By contrast, Washington’s army lacked training, was smaller, was poorly supplied and was plagued by short enlistments that permitted soldiers to go home at critical times. Disease, disorganization and inexperience weakened the Americans before the fighting ever began.

The first major clash came at the Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War. The Americans set up defensive positions on Brooklyn Heights, believing they could hold off the British. However, British forces executed a flanking maneuver through the Jamaica Pass—an undefended route that American commanders had failed to secure.

This mistake was devastating. The Americans were outmaneuvered, surrounded and forced into a chaotic retreat. Hundreds were killed, wounded or captured. The army narrowly avoided total destruction only because Washington organized a daring nighttime evacuation across the East River. The army was saved by thick fog that concealed their escape, but it was essentially a desperate act after a crushing defeat

After Long Island, Washington’s army continued to fall back. The British landed in Manhattan, forcing more retreats. At the Battle of Kip’s Bay, American militia broke and fled without much resistance, embarrassing Washington and exposing the army’s lack of discipline. The British soon captured New York City, a major strategic and economic center. This was a huge loss—giving the British control of a vital port and a base for the rest of the war.

Washington attempted to make a stand at the Battle of Harlem Heights and later at White Plains, but these actions did little to change the overall situation. The army was constantly retreating, losing ground and struggling to maintain cohesion. Soldiers deserted in growing numbers, and enlistments were about to expire at the end of the year. Confidence in the American cause was slipping, yet Washington and his army did not quit.

One of the worst blows came with the Battle of Fort Washington. It was believed that Fort Washington could hold against an attacking force, but when British and Hessian forces attacked, they overwhelmed the defenders. The result was catastrophic: nearly 3,000 American soldiers were captured—one of the largest single losses of troops in the entire war. These prisoners would suffer terribly in British captivity, with many dying from disease and neglect. The loss also meant the British gained full control of Manhattan. Just days later, the British moved against Fort Lee. Washington’s forces barely escaped before being surrounded. In the hurried retreat, they abandoned large quantities of supplies—cannons, food, clothing and ammunition. Most remarkably, Washington and his army still did not quit.

The situation was desperate following these defeats. Washington led his army in a long retreat across New Jersey. Conditions were miserable—cold weather, lack of supplies and constant British pursuit. Many soldiers’ enlistments expired, shrinking the army even further. By the time they reached Pennsylvania, in December of 1776, the Continental Army was on the brink of collapse.

But what about the Declaration of Independence, wasn’t that a highlight? Yes, most certainly it was a highlight and something we celebrate, but it also had its challenges in 1776. Lengthy debate took place leading up to the passage of a resolution for independence on July 2. The delegates met with the doors and windows closed and locked in what we now call Independence Hall. It was hot, stuffy and uncomfortable inside—not to mention there was a stable nearby that provided an overabundance of flies to pester the delegates. What many today forget is something the delegates were all too well aware of: placing their names on the document was basically signing a death warrant. They knew they were risking their homes and fortunes as well. That’s why the last line of the document concludes with these words: “We mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor.”

Though no signers were executed as a result of authorizing the Declaration of Independence, many of the 56 signers suffered as a result of doing so: About a dozen had their homes looted or destroyed, and at least nine died during the war from wounds or hardship. Nearly all of them had to flee their homes at one point or another. Several lost a significant amount of property as British forces often targeted prominent Patriots, seizing estates and devastating livelihoods. One of the most tragic examples was Francis Lewis, whose home was ransacked and whose wife was captured by the British; she endured brutal conditions and died shortly after her release while Lewis lived in exile.

As the year 1776 neared its end, prospects for victory and establishing independence looked like two dreams about to be extinguished. Washington knew if they couldn’t muster a single victory by year’s end, most enlistments would be over and the vast majority of the army would go home. In this moment Washington and his lieutenants crafted a plan to save the Revolution. They would cross the Delaware River from Pennsylvania into New Jersey and attack the Hessians at Trenton. It really was a” win or go home” moment. In fact, the password used to identify friendly forces during the night march to Trenton was “Victory or Death.”

The conditions were brutal—chunks of ice clogged the Delaware River while a fierce winter storm battered the soldiers with a mix of sleet, freezing rain and snow. The famous painting titled “Washington Crossing the Delaware” is historically inaccurate in several ways, but perhaps the most notable inaccuracy is that no one would have been able to stand in the boats with these conditions. Moreover, many of the men lacked proper shoes or warm clothing. It was so bad that one could have easily followed them because men left bloody footprints in the snow.

Coordinating the nighttime crossing with inexperienced, exhausted troops was incredibly difficult, and several planned supporting crossings failed, leaving Washington’s force smaller than intended. Despite these challenges, Washington pressed on, marching his men through freezing winds toward Trenton. At dawn on December 26, they launched a surprise attack on the Hessian forces, who were caught off guard after the holiday. It should also be noted that a popular urban legend about the fight is wrong. The Hessians were not drunk, and they did put up a fierce fight. However, the Americans quickly overwhelmed them, capturing nearly a thousand enemy soldiers. This hard-won victory—achieved in daunting weather conditions, through logistical obstacles and despite long odds—revived American morale and proved that Washington’s army could still fight, and still win, against a formidable enemy. In the final days and hours of the year 1776, this single victory saved the army from collapse.

George Washington said, “Perseverance and spirit have done wonders in all ages.” There was no year of greater perseverance than 1776. From the efforts to create an army to enduring the shortage of supplies and abundance of disease, the character of these men and women made the United States what it is today and enabled us to endure through the hardest times. The courage in the face of great peril that was demonstrated by those who signed the Declaration of Independence is a lesson that should not be forgotten. Just like Washington’s Army that persevered through defeat after defeat in the New York campaign, they remained resilient because they believed in the cause of Independence for this burgeoning democracy. As you enjoy a hotdog or hamburger today at a picnic, cheer a parade or marvel at a big fireworks display, possibly at DelGrosso’s Amusement Park, just keep in mind the courage, resilience, fortitude and perseverance of those Patriots 250 years ago.

Happy Independence Day, and as always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

There are many heroes and personalities we can celebrate that played a role in our Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and the subsequent victory in the war against Great Britain. Among the most notable are Thomas Jefferson, primary author of the Declaration of Independence; George Washington, commander of the Continental Army; Robert Morris, who financed the American Revolution; Benjamin Franklin, who secured the support of France; and John Adams, leader and early proponent of independence. There is also the common, everyday soldier—both Continental regulars and militia—that deserves credit.

In this edition of the History Lowdown, I want to share some patriots that played a significant role in our independence that deserve more credit than they receive.

John Glover played a crucial—but often underappreciated—role in securing American independence, especially through his leadership of a unique maritime unit known as Glover’s Marblehead Regiment.

Glover was a merchant and ship captain from Marblehead, Massachusetts, and he brought his seafaring expertise into the Continental Army. His regiment was made up largely of experienced fishermen and sailors—men who were exceptionally skilled with boats, navigation and coastal operations. We often associate amphibious warfare with World War II at places like Normandy, Guadalcanal and Iwo Jima, but Glover was the master of it in the Revolutionary War.

His most important contributions came during two pivotal moments in the war in which he and his men saved Washington’s army.

After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Long Island that resulted in the British occupying New York City, George Washington’s army was trapped and facing likely destruction by British forces. Glover’s men organized and executed a daring nighttime evacuation across the East River, saving them from imminent destruction. They silently ferried thousands of troops, horses and equipment to safety. Without this operation, the Continental Army likely would have been captured en masse, which could have ended the Revolution and American independence.

After a series of defeats in 1776, Washington’s Army was in desperate need of a victory before most soldiers’ enlistments were up. Glover’s regiment again proved indispensable during Washington’s famous crossing of the Delaware River. Glover‘s men navigated ice-filled waters in brutal winter conditions that included freezing rain, sleet and snow. Their expertise ensured that Washington’s troops crossed safely and on schedule. This led directly to the surprise American victory at the Battle of Trenton, a turning point that revived morale and momentum.

Glover’s regiment didn’t just ferry troops—they also fought as infantry when needed. Their versatility made them one of the most valuable specialized units in the Continental Army.

Hugh Hughes is another of those behind-the-scenes figures whose impact was significant though his name is not widely remembered. Hughes served as the quartermaster officer under George Washington—a job that was equally vital and difficult. The Continental Army constantly struggled with shortages; food, clothing, weapons, wagons and horses were all items where demand exceeded supply. Hughes was responsible for procuring, organizing and transporting supplies to keep the army functioning.

Hughes deserves credit for a number of reasons. The Continental Army often came close to collapse due to lack of supplies. Hughes made sure soldiers had at least the bare essentials. Without that, there would have been no army left to fight. During major operations—like the New York campaign—Hughes helped coordinate the movement of supplies and equipment. Armies in the 18th century couldn’t operate far from supply lines, so his work enabled Washington to maneuver strategically rather than being stuck in one place. Washington withdrew from the battlefield several times, yet each time his army was resupplied.

It is often said that battles are won by soldiers, but wars are won by systems. Hughes was part of the system that kept the Continental Army in the field long enough to outlast the British.

If you know your early American history, you would recognize the name John Jay as the first Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. However, it is his brother, James Jay, who is to be recognized here. James Jay was a physician and inventor. It was one of his inventions that proved to be a valuable resource for George Washington.

Jay developed a specialized, chemical-based invisible ink that was immune to traditional heat or acid detection methods. He provided this “white ink” to George Washington, who utilized it for communication with field officers and to secure messages sent by those gathering information on the British, including the Culper Ring.

The Culper Ring was a patriot spy group active in New York City during the war who provided Washington with information on British troop movements, ship arrivals and departures, and other essential intelligence. Not a single member of the ring was ever caught or revealed. The Culper Ring was prominently featured in the AMC television drama Turn: Washington’s Spies.

Speaking of the Culper Spy Ring, the most effective spy to this date is known as Agent 355. It was this agent that provided Washington with some of the most crucial information during the war, including discovering that Benedict Arnold was going to defect. This prevented the loss of West Point, which Arnold planned to surrender. The fact this agent’s identity remains unknown to this day is extraordinary. The one thing we do know is that Agent 355 was a woman.

If someone tasked you to name a naval hero during the Revolutionary War, it’s likely John Paul Jones would be a near unanimous selection. After all, popular culture often credits him with being the father of the U.S. Navy. He is recognized for his daring tactics and famous defiant quote when being instructed to surrender: “I have not yet begun to fight.” Before Jones captured the spotlight, however, Commodore Esek Hopkins was crucial to the Patriot cause.

Hopkins created and organized the first American Navy, a particularly difficult task that involved not only recruiting experienced sailors, but also converting merchant ships to military ships. Hopkins’ most significant achievement was leading an exposition to the Bahamas in early 1776. His fleet attacked Nassau, which was under British control and led the first amphibious assault in American military history. His forces captured much-needed gunpowder and military supplies, which were desperately needed by the Continental Army. The situation was so desperate that half of all correspondence by General Washington, at the time, included pleas that could be described as begging for more gunpowder and munitions. Without this acquisition of gunpowder, it is likely the Continental Army would have been completely defeated in 1776.

As we celebrate our semiquincentennial, it would be nearly impossible to remember every patriot who deserves credit for our independence. We can at least recognize the fact there were more who deserve recognition than the commonly cited, well-known names at the start of this article. May we at least remember collectively the sacrifices of all the patriots on the front lines and in support roles.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

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Today, June 6, is the anniversary of the Allied invasion of Normandy, France commonly referred to as D-Day. Like the Bond films, it too is the story of good triumphing over evil. Obviously, it has a much more serious tone than the fictitious James Bond films. The author of the James Bond books that provided the content for the movies was Ian Fleming. Flemming actually served as an intelligence officer for the British during the war. Though Flemming was a planner of missions rather than a field operative, many of the ideas in his books came from real-life experiences.

One of the field operatives that Flemming may have used in his storylines was Agent Wake, nicknamed the “White Mouse” by the Gestapo. Agent Wake was one of the most daring Allied agents working with the French Resistance against the Nazis. The work in France by Wake before and after D-Day was critical to weakening German control and supporting the Allied invasion.

Agent Wake initially worked in occupied France as a courier and organizer for resistance networks. Wake helped smuggle downed Allied airmen out of France through escape routes into Spain, risking execution if caught. As the Gestapo intensified its pursuit—placing a large bounty on the agent’s head—Wake escaped to Britain and joined the Special Operations Executive (SOE). Rigorous training in weapons, sabotage and espionage was provided.

In early 1944, Wake parachuted back into central France to prepare Resistance forces for the upcoming Allied invasion. The new assignment was to work closely with local Maquis groups (rural resistance fighters) and organize them into more effective fighting units. Wake helped stockpile weapons and explosives that were dropped by Allied aircraft, coordinated communication between scattered resistance cells and planned acts of sabotage aimed at German infrastructure—especially railways, bridges and supply lines. These efforts were designed to disrupt German troop movements once the D-Day invasion began.

Following the Allied landings on June 6, 1944, Wake’s role became even more intense, including escalated combat operations. Tasks included helping lead Resistance fighters in guerrilla operations against German forces in central France. Under the leadership and coordination provided by Wake, they launched attacks on German convoys, destroyed transportation networks and ambushed troops attempting to move toward Normandy.

One of Agent Wake’s most remarkable feats was a 300-mile bicycle journey through dangerous enemy-held territory to restore communication with London after the wireless radio operator was captured—an effort that ensured continued coordination of supply drops from Allied aircraft and continued strategic instructions. Wake also participated directly in combat, including raids on German positions and an intrepid attack on a Gestapo headquarters building—a feat of particular daring since they had a bounty in place for the capture of Agent Wake.

Wake’s leadership helped tie down significant numbers of German troops who might otherwise have reinforced the Normandy front, contributing to the success of the Allied campaign in France.

By now you likely have noticed that in telling the story of this real-life James Bond, I avoided using Agent Wake’s first name. It was Nancy—Agent Nancy Wake was a woman. She was born in Wellington, New Zealand and served as an Australian nurse and journalist before she began working as an operative in 1943. She was 31 when she parachuted into France. She survived the war and later worked for the British Air Ministry in intelligence. She lived until 2011, dying at the age of 98. She received numerous military honors from England, France, Australia and the United States, including the King George Medal, Croix de Guerre, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Eleanor Roosevelt said, “A woman is like a teabag—you never know how strong she is until you put her in hot water.” Nancy Wake left no doubt of her strength and courage in the “hot water” of German-occupied Europe. As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

My History Lowdown columns in late May have always focused on Memorial Day, featuring those who have made the ultimate sacrifice as members of our Armed Forces. It’s tremendously important that those sacrifices are not forgotten. Columns in previous years have focused on lesser known stories, especially about local men. This year I want to focus on sacrifices made by a group that is often overlooked and sometimes entirely forgotten.

”Donut Dollies” was the nickname given to young women who volunteered with the American Red Cross Supplemental Recreation Activities Overseas (SRAO) program during the Vietnam War. The program originated during World War I when the women were called “Donut Lassies.”

627 young women volunteered in Vietnam—most were recent college graduates, typically in their early 20s, who were sent to U.S. military bases in Vietnam to boost morale among American troops. They served a one-year tour of duty.

Despite the nickname, they didn’t actually spend most of their time serving donuts. Their mission was psychological support and morale-building. They traveled by helicopter to remote firebases and combat zones. While there, they organized games, trivia challenges and contests to both distract soldiers from the stress of combat and alleviate homesickness. They also visited hospitals to comfort wounded soldiers.

Their presence was intentionally “light” and friendly—something very different from the harsh realities soldiers faced daily. For many troops, a visit from the Donut Dollies was one of the few bright moments in an otherwise intense environment. Informal conversations with the ladies offered a sense of normalcy and a chance to laugh.

Though the “Donut Dollies” were not assigned to combat, their jobs were still dangerous as they often faced many of the same hazards and hardships as the troops they served.

One of the greatest difficulties was constant exposure to danger. “Donut Dollies” often flew in helicopters or small aircraft into active combat zones where bases could come under mortar, rocket or sniper fire with little warning. Some had to take cover under attack, including diving into bunkers or ditches. Unlike other civilians, they worked close to the front lines and sometimes visited units only hours after battles had ended.

The physical conditions were also extremely difficult. Vietnam’s heat and humidity were exhausting, especially while traveling long distances. Carrying heavy equipment for programs and games was a challenge. Many bases had primitive living conditions with limited privacy, poor sanitation, insects, mud and unreliable electricity or water. During the monsoon season, roads and landing zones could become dangerous or even unusable.

Emotionally, the work could be overwhelming. The women formed friendships with soldiers and then sometimes learned those same men had been wounded or killed shortly afterward. The hospital visits often involved encounters with badly injured Americans—many younger than they were. The stress of seeing fear, loneliness and wounded men day after day took a psychological toll, even though they were expected to remain cheerful and encouraging.

The Donut Dollies also faced isolation and pressure because they were among very few American women in combat areas. They often had to prove they belonged there and maintain professionalism in an overwhelmingly male military environment. At the same time, they carried the responsibility of representing a comforting connection to home for soldiers under extreme stress.

Despite these hardships, many veterans later said the Donut Dollies provided an important emotional lift during the war. Their courage and willingness to serve in dangerous conditions earned deep respect from many of the troops they supported..

Three Donut Dollies lost their lives in Vietnam-related service. Their stories are remembered with deep respect, especially on Memorial Day.

Hannah E. Crews

Hannah Crews was killed in a jeep accident near Bien Hoa on October 2, 1969. She was 23 when she died, having recently graduated from Appalachian State University in 1968. Her death deeply affected the Donut Dolly community since she was their first fatality.

Lucinda J. Richter

Lucinda Richter died in Vietnam on February 9, 1971, at Cam Ranh Bay, due to Guillain-Barre Syndrome likely triggered by the Vietnam climate and mosquitos providing an arboviral trigger. She was 22 at the time of her death.

Virginia “Ginny” Kirsch

Ginny Kirsch is perhaps the most tragic story because she was murdered by someone she went there to serve. She was born in Erie, Pennsylvania, and moved to Ohio, eventually graduating from the Miami University of Ohio. The 22-year-old from Brookfield, Ohio, had been in Vietnam for only two weeks when she was stabbed to death on August 16, 1970, while sleeping in her bunk at the headquarters of the 25th Infantry in Cu Chi, Republic of Vietnam.

An Army investigation determined she was murdered by an Army soldier named Gregory Kozlowski, who was arrested and charged with her murder. However, an Army Medical Review Board eventually issued a finding that Kozlowski was mentally ill and unable to determine right and wrong. As a result, charges against him were dismissed. He spent more than 30 years in a psychological institution receiving treatment.

A fourth Donut Dolly was killed in Vietnam after her enlistment with the SRAO program ended. Sharon Wesley served from 1971 to 1972. After her Red Cross tour ended and U.S. military forces were withdrawn in 1973, Wesley chose to remain in Vietnam and work for a civilian agency and in local orphanages. On April 4, 1975, she volunteered to help on the very first humanitarian flight of Operation Babylift, an airlift intended to evacuate orphaned and displaced children to safety before the Fall of Saigon. The plane suffered a catastrophic decompression shortly after takeoff, forcing a crash landing in a marshy field where she lost her life. There were thirty-five other women who also died when this plane crashed.

There were other women killed in Vietnam during the war as well, including Gloria Redlin who was a volunteer nurse with the Lutheran World Relief Organization. She and other nurses have a story deserving to be told as well—possibly for a future History Lowdown.

On this Memorial Day—but really every day—let us not forget those who made the ultimate sacrifice protecting our great nation to preserve freedom and those supporting the armed forces who have provided that freedom.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

The elections I’m going to examine are past elections of U.S. Presidents. This column is based upon my opinion, which is something else I typically try to avoid, but this topic necessitates it. I have selected the 10 best Presidential candidates from past elections that lost. Let me first start by explaining the framework for this list. I have chosen 10 Presidential candidates who lost their election but, in my opinion, would have made good Presidents. In no way am I saying they would’ve made a better President than the person who defeated them. That’s an entirely different list. The criteria here simply judges the person for their communication skills, leadership ability, government and legislative experience and other factors like the ability to compromise that would’ve influenced their ability to lead the nation. Presidents are elected to enact their policy agenda, so my list estimates that ability and is not influenced by whether I agree with their agenda or not. As a historian, I must suspend my partisan beliefs. Thus, there are both Democrats and Republicans on the list, so who I voted for plays no role. Is it possible that more than 10 of the losing candidates could’ve been good Presidents? Certainly—but I had to limit the list. In fact, the list I brainstormed had more than 10 names.

1. Henry Clay (lost in 1824, 1832 and 1844)

Clay was known as the great compromiser. He served in both the House of Representatives, including six terms as Speaker of the House, and four terms in the Senate. Clay was also Secretary of State, giving him foreign policy experience. He had a strong understanding of national unity and economic development.

2. Daniel Webster (lost in 1836 and failed to secure the nomination in 1848)

Webster was one of the greatest orators in American history, making him an effective communicator. He was an exceptional lawyer who possessed outstanding legal and Constitutional knowledge, arguing over 200 cases in front of the U.S. Supreme Court. He served as Secretary of State for three Presidents. During his time in the Senate, he served as chairman of the finance committee.

3. Samuel Tilden (lost 1876)

Tilden was one of those unusual examples who won the popular election but didn’t win the electoral college. Tilden was recognized as a reformer in an era of corruption. As governor of New York, he developed administrative and executive skills and eliminated government waste. He prosecuted numerous individuals for government corruption, including the infamous Tammany Hall led by Boss Tweed.

4. William Jennings Bryan (lost 1896, 1900 and 1908)

Like Webster, Bryan was a gifted and charismatic speaker. His “Cross of Gold” speech is considered one of the best in our history. Also, like Webster, he served as Secretary of State and in the House of Representatives, giving him both legislative and executive experience. Many issues he supported during the 1896 and 1900 campaigns were eventually made law during the Progressive Era. As a champion of the “common man,” he supported banking reform, antitrust legislation and more opportunities for citizens to participate in government.

5. Charles Evans Hughes (lost 1916)

Hughes was one of the most respected politicians of his generation. He had considerable experience with all three branches of government, including serving as an associate justice of the Supreme Court until he resigned to run for President. He was later appointed Chief Justice. He also served as governor of New York and held several legislative positions. He had success working with both political parties.

6. Adlai Stevenson (lost 1952 and 1956)

Well known for being eloquent and intellectual, Stevenson had executive experience as the governor of Illinois. He served a variety of posts in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations. His foreign policy knowledge led to him being selected as a member of the first United Nations delegation in 1945 as well as later serving as the U.N. ambassador for the United States. He played a considerable role in diffusing the Cuban Missile Crisis.

7. Hubert Humphrey (lost 1968)

Humphrey was a longtime senator with considerable experience, including being a central figure in the adaptation of Civil Rights legislation. As majority whip, his tireless efforts led to the passage of many pieces of significant legislation. One of his greatest strengths was getting things done by building coalitions. In addition to his legislative experience, he also had significant executive experience serving as vice president. He is remembered for his commitment to making government more responsive to the needs of the people.

8. Bob Dole (lost 1996)

Dole amassed a remarkable amount of political and legal experience starting in the Kansas legislature in 1951 followed by eight terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. In between, he was the district attorney for Russell County. He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1969 and rose to leadership positions as both minority and majority leader for ten years. Notably, he worked across the aisle to revise the food stamp program and co-sponsored the Americans with Disabilities Act. As a sign of respect, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by his 1996 campaign opponent in 1997. In 2008, he received the World Food Prize for his longtime support of humanitarian relief efforts. His foreign policy beliefs were guided by his experiences serving in WW2.

9. Al Gore (lost 2000)

Gore served four terms in the House of Representatives and two terms in the Senate, giving him considerable legislative experience. He also served eight years as vice president. Known for his “stiff” public persona, this overshadowed the fact he often reached across the aisle to create compromise and even broke with party lines on issues when the solution was something he believed was good for the country. He was a moderate in a time of increasing partisan politics. Few politicians of his generation had his level of policy and administrative knowledge.

10. John McCain (lost 2008)

McCain had a long and distinguished 31-year career in the United States Senate. In addition to his legislative experience, he had considerable foreign policy and military experience. He is the only former POW to run for President. In many cases, he took the position of country over political party—his unwavering integrity alone would’ve made him a good President. He was known for living by the mantra of service over self. During his campaign, he was asked by a supporter to elaborate on a falsehood about his opponent. Instead of jumping on the opportunity to denigrate his opposition, which candidates from both parties would be quick to do today, he explained why the statement was incorrect.

Would these candidates have been good U.S. Presidents? This is just one of many “What if?” questions in history—questions that we will never know the answers to. These questions do, however, provide for lively, intelligent discussion. The answers are merely speculative.

I will mention the others that I considered but didn’t make the list. I will classify them as honorable mentions: Stephen Douglas (1860), Winfield Hancock (1880), Wendell Willkie (1940), George McGovern (1972), Mitt Romney (2012) and Hillary Clinton (2016). I would have added Teddy Roosevelt for 1912, but we know he was a good President. There may be others who could have been good. And maybe my conjectures are wrong—not unlike the way voters select the candidate who they think will be a good President, but sometimes they are wrong. That, however, is a totally different list.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

April 28 is National Workers Memorial Day—a day to honor workers who have been injured or killed on the job. My grandfather, who worked in the freight yards in Altoona just beyond the locomotive shop shared a couple of stories about workplace accidents. Like most stories used for examples, they were extreme and gruesome. They were also not unusual in American workplaces—especially during the 19th and early 20th centuries when the United States experienced rapid industrialization—yet worker safety was not a priority. In fact, it was basically nonexistent. Not only would there have never been a day to remember those injured or killed on the job in that era, but there wasn’t even an effort to aid injured workers or the families who lost loved ones. If you were injured and couldn’t come to work, you didn’t have a job. Pennsylvania didn’t create a Worker’s Compensation law until 1915. A few states did so starting in 1911, but the majority of states followed Pennsylvania. Mississippi was last in 1948.

It is estimated that 14,000 workers died on the job each year, but it was a single event in 1911 that had a significant impact on the passage of work safety laws and worker’s compensation laws as well as the creation of the Department of Labor in 1913.

The Asch building in New York City was completed in 1901. It was designed by architect John Woolley and named for its owner, Joseph J. Asch. It was labeled fireproof based upon the standards of early 20th century regulations. It had a steel frame and electric lighting, but “fireproof” simply meant it did not have a wooden frame. Since it was fireproof, it did not have outward opening doors or sprinklers, and it only had one fire escape. One thing that buildings of this size (ten floors) were required to have was three separate interior staircases, but when the plans were submitted, an exemption was applied for and granted to have only two staircases. The fire escape was in the rear and was labeled a third staircase. It was an exterior staircase.

Constructed in the garment district, the Asch Building was built to house businesses within that industry. The first floor contained retail shops. The second and third floors were the “unmentionable” floors with A. Stein & Co. making garters and the Wolf company making underwear. The third and fourth floors were used by Meyer Jonasson & Co, makers of high-end coats and suits. Maurice Blum, maker of men’s and boys’ clothes, used the sixth floor. The seventh floor deviated from the norm and was occupied by offices of the New York Journal, a newspaper. The largest occupant, the Triangle Shirtwaist Company was located on the top three floors. A shirtwaist was a woman’s blouse patterned after a man’s button-down shirt. It featured a high collar, front buttons, and was made to be tucked into a skirt. They were popular into the late 1890s and early 20th century.

The Triangle company was founded by Russian immigrants Max Blanck and Isaac Harris. They opened a small shop on Wooster Street, but early success necessitated moving to the new Asch Building in 1901. Their success continued, and the duo became known as the “Shirtwaist Kings.” At first they only occupied one floor, but they eventually expanded to the eighth, ninth and tenth floors. At their peak, they were producing 2,000 shirts a day.

They employed mostly young Jewish and Italian female immigrants, as young as 12 with the majority in their teens and early 20s. This was typical of the garment industry at the time, particularly because they could pay them low wages and require them to work in crowded sweatshop conditions. The typical workday was 10 to 14 hours in length on either a six or even seven-day week schedule. They earned about one dollar a day and pay was based upon productivity, not how many hours you worked. Because the owners contracted factory space out to middlemen who hired the women, the middlemen crowded as many sewing machines onto long tables as possible. Each floor had two male overseers who verbally berated the workers if they were talking or not working fast enough. They also scolded the women if they wanted to take breaks. Even the fire escape doors were locked to prevent leaving work early or the theft of leftover fabric.

Saturday, March 25, 1911 is the day that American labor history and policy changed. It was nearing closing time at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company. As previously mentioned, it was not unusual to be working on a Saturday. At 4:30 PM, a fire started in a waste bin on the eighth floor, possibly by a cigarette butt or discarded match. Due to the highly flammable nature of the cotton used for the shirts, and the fact scraps were scattered about the floor, the fire spread rapidly. Additionally, with no sprinkler system or fire extinguishers, there was nothing to fight the flames like we can in buildings today. A few of the workers tried to extinguish the fire with buckets of water, but it spread too rapidly and by 4:40 PM, flames engulfed the entirety of the eighth floor.

Workers on the eighth floor telephoned the ninth and tenth floors to warn them to evacuate. The tenth floor received the warning and began evacuating, but there was no reply from the ninth floor. By 4:45 PM, panic had spread throughout the ninth floor at the same time as the smoke. Women rushing to exit the building found one stairwell overly crowded, and the other one was locked. The only remaining way out was the fire escape, which tragically collapsed, both weakened by the fire and overwhelmed by the weight of fleeing workers. Many of the workers on the ninth floor were now trapped.

You may recall the awful occurrence before the collapse of the World Trade Center when the fire became so intense that those trapped began leaping from the building. The same tragic scenario took place at this fire. Firefighters, who had arrived on the scene at about 4:46 PM, tried to catch one of the jumpers, but jumping from the height of the ninth floor caused them to go right through the life net. The firefighters were basically helpless because their ladders would only reach the sixth floor, and the water pressure was not strong enough to successfully fight the fire. The fire reached its peak from 4:50 to 5:00 PM and then slowly burned out as the fuel for the fire was entirely consumed. The frame of the building was as advertised, fireproof, but that was of little comfort to those who witnessed the awful tragedy.

The death toll was 146 with 123 of them being girls and young women ranging in age from 14 to 23. On April 5, 1911, the ILGWU (International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union) organized a simultaneous funeral parade and protest of the conditions that led to the tragedy. It was attended by 400,000 people in New York City. The two owners were indicted for manslaughter but found not guilty during their trial. An absence of labor safety laws to prosecute them was a considerable factor in their acquittal. The state of New York acted quickly, creating nearly two dozen workplace safety laws as well as a commission to investigate worker safety. Other states quickly followed. In 1913, the federal government created the Department of Labor as a Cabinet-level post. It took this tragic loss of life for our country to realize that working people should be prioritized over profits.

It certainly gives me an appreciation for that sign boasting how many days the Juniata Locomotive Shops were accident free, especially when you consider that in the 19th century, accidents were considered just another part of the job. On April 28, Workers’ Memorial Day, it would be suitable and appropriate to not only remember but to give proper credit to those 146 workers who died in the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, for it was their loss of life that brought about positive change.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

On the March 19, 2026, episode, in a category labeled “The Who?” (a category identifying who people were based upon a given clue, not a category about the rock band) an answer was read about a presidential campaign. The $1,000 clue read: “‘Who am I? Why am I here?’, asked James Stockdale, the running mate of this then independent candidate at a V-P debate in 1992.” As a history teacher and a collector of political memorabilia, Ross Perot immediately came to mind as the correct response, and it did for Jen as well. Not only did memories of 1992 come flowing back, so did my indignation.

The Presidential campaign of 1992 featured the Republican incumbent, George H. W. Bush, running against the governor of Arkansas, Bill Clinton. Bush’s poll numbers were not good. He had campaigned in 1988 on a promise of “Read my lips, no new taxes.” He had to backtrack on his promise to address a ballooning deficit. It was the right thing to do for the country entering a recession, but voters were unforgiving. The euphoria of victory from 1991—after Saddam Hussein had invaded Kuwait and the U.S. responded by leading a coalition of nations to liberate Kuwait—had waned.

The economic difficulties in 1992 after the prosperous 1980s became the focus of the election. So much so, that on February 20, 1992, while appearing on the Larry King Live show, H. Ross Perot announced he was running as an independent for President. Perot was a billionaire who made his fortune primarily by founding and selling Electronic Data Systems (EDS), a pioneering data processing company. He built EDS into a massive IT services firm, selling it to General Motors in 1984 for $2.5 billion, and he later founded Perot Systems. He planned to finance his own campaign, promising to bring reform by eliminating waste, creating jobs and reducing the deficit. His campaign message was broadcast on half hour television infomercials.

Perot selected James Stockdale—featured in the Jeopardy question mentioned above—as his running mate. Stockdale participated in the 1992 Vice-Presidential debate on October 13 in Atlanta, Georgia. The other two participants were Dan Quayle (Rep) and Al Gore (Dem). The debate featured a verbal free-for-all between Quayle and Gore, but the headlines were dominated by James Stockdale. Between his opening with the questions of “Who am I and why am I here?” to having issues with his hearing aid, he became the subject of jokes and ridicule. Moreover, Perot’s late choice of him as a running mate didn’t allow appropriate time for preparation, so some of his answers were brief and lacking clarity. Essentially, he became an easy target for jokes, especially due to his penchant for talking loudly as a result of hearing issues.

Because vice presidential debates are poorly viewed compared to the Presidential debates, the only knowledge many Americans had of James Stockdale were unflattering sound bites of his debate performance and the avalanche of jokes that followed. As Paul Harvey liked to say, they didn’t know the rest of the story—not the reason why he was wearing hearing aids nor the reason he accepted Perot’s offer to be his vice presidential running mate.

James Stockdale had one of the most remarkable—and harrowing—military careers of the 20th century, defined above all by his leadership and endurance as a prisoner of war during the Vietnam War.

Stockdale graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1946 and became a naval aviator, eventually flying combat missions from aircraft carriers. By the mid-1960s, he was a highly experienced pilot commanding Carrier Air Wing 16 aboard the U.S.S. Oriskany (CV-34).

On September 9, 1965, while flying a combat mission over North Vietnam, Stockdale’s aircraft was struck by enemy fire. He ejected and parachuted into a small village where he was captured. This began more than seven years of imprisonment—making him one of the longest-held American POWs of the war.

Stockdale was taken to the notorious Hỏa Lò Prison—often called the “Hanoi Hilton” by American prisoners. There, he quickly became the senior-ranking U.S. officer among the captives, which placed him in a position of responsibility for maintaining order, morale and resistance among fellow prisoners.

The conditions he and others endured were extremely harsh. Prisoners were frequently subjected to isolation, inadequate food, poor medical care and physical punishment. Interrogations were designed to extract propaganda statements, and refusal often brought severe consequences. Stockdale himself was repeatedly tortured and held in solitary confinement for long periods. In one well-known act of defiance, he deliberately injured himself with a razor blade to make it impossible for his captors to use him for propaganda, demonstrating his refusal to cooperate. When they took his shaving kit, he used the wooden stole to inflict harm upon himself so they couldn’t use him in video propaganda messages. They beat him so severely that they ruptured both of his eardrums, necessitating the use of those hearing aids. The ones that became central to the jokes.

Despite these conditions, Stockdale organized a covert system of communication among prisoners and established a code of conduct that emphasized unity and resistance. He encouraged fellow POWs to endure as best they could while giving only limited, non-damaging information under duress—a balance that helped many prisoners survive psychologically as well as physically.

His leadership and resilience became a symbol of resistance. When he was finally released in 1973 as part of the Paris Peace Accords, Stockdale returned home as a hero.

For his actions, he received the Medal of Honor along with multiple other decorations. The citation recognized not just his personal bravery, but his leadership in organizing resistance and sustaining the morale of fellow prisoners under extreme conditions.

In 1992, he accepted the offer from Ross Perot to be his running mate because of the respect Stockdale had for him as a result of what Perot had done for POW‘s during the Vietnam War. Perot famously advocated for American Prisoners of War in Vietnam by launching humanitarian missions, raising public awareness and pressuring North Vietnam for better treatment. His efforts included chartering planes to deliver 26 tons of Christmas gifts, medicine and food in 1969, and supporting the failed 1970 Son Tay rescue mission. Stockdale simply viewed it as another way to serve his country.

His story remains one of the most powerful examples of courage and moral strength in modern American military history. He is a hero that deserved more respect than fate accorded him after the debate. This is not a rationale of why one should have voted for him. It’s a reminder of the great injustice done as he is remembered more for his debate performance than the fact he lost his hearing serving his country in an extraordinary manner.

April 9 is National Former POW Day, a day to reflect on the sacrifices made by Americans who spent time as a captive during a war. Nobody deserves that reflection and respect more than Admiral James Stockdale.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

Why does the date of Easter change from year to year?

If one compares Easter with the other Christian holiday that has a significant secular tradition, Christmas, one might wonder: Why does Easter occur on a different day each year while Christmas remains the same? Christmas has a specific date assigned on the Gregorian calendar. Easter, however, is based upon a combination of factors—the lunar cycle, the solar calendar and the seven-day week. The goal was to standardize the celebration across Christian communities and separate it from the Jewish celebration of Passover.

The formula—yes, it’s a formula—was established in 325 at the First Council of Nicaea, a meeting of Christian leaders called for by Constantine the Great. The decision made was that Easter would take place on the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after the spring equinox. Based on that formula, Easter can fall anywhere between March 22 and April 25. Sunday is the only calendar absolute because all four gospels indicate Jesus rose from the dead on the first day of the week, which at the time of their writing was considered Sunday.

Easter, a one-day observance or more?

While many attend Easter celebrations on Easter Sunday, the weeklong observance of Holy Week gives a better understanding of this Christian observance. It’s sometimes referred to as a festival, but not in the “party” sense that we often consider to be a festival-like atmosphere. It marks a solemn reflection on Jesus‘s life, passion, death and resurrection.

Holy Week starts the week before on Palm Sunday, marking Jesus Christ’s triumphant entry into Jerusalem, where crowds laid palm branches in his path. It’s the final week of Lent and is characterized by church processions, the blessing of palm fronds and readings of the Passion story.

The next observance is Holy Thursday. It is also called Maundy Thursday. Maundy is derived from the Latin mandatum (commandment); it recalls Jesus’ command, “Love one another as I have loved you.” It’s an observance commemorating the Last Supper, where Jesus instituted the Eucharist and priesthood and washed his disciples’ feet. It marks the start of the Easter Triduum, the church’s holiest three days. Observances may include a special evening service, foot-washing and adoration.

The next day is Good Friday, or the way of the cross. It’s a solemn commemoration of the crucifixion and death of Jesus Christ observed on the Friday before Easter. It is a day of deep mourning, reflection and austerity, focusing on Jesus’ sacrifice for sin, often featuring bare altars, silent meditation and the Tenebrae service, which is a service that features the gradual extinction of the lights (candles) leading to darkness symbolizing the events of the day.

Holy Saturday is the final day of Holy Week, honoring the day Jesus lay in the tomb after his crucifixion. It is a day of profound stillness, reflection and quiet anticipation, often considered a day of rest.

Easter Sunday is a day of great joy celebrating the Resurrection of the Lord. The service, often featuring music, is the jubilant climax of Holy Week, shifting from the somber tone of the Passion to bright celebration. Unlike the somber purple/black of Good Friday, Easter uses white to represent light, purity and resurrection.

Some observe the tradition of having their Easter service at sunrise. I recall, as a child, Easter sunrise service taking place in the parking lot of Pleasant Valley shopping center due to the large crowd. I would go with my parents in my pajamas since the service was broadcast over the radio in the car. The service was ecumenical, open to all denominations.

Why do we celebrate with the Easter Bunny?

The tradition of the Easter Bunny started in Germany and was brought to our country by German immigrants. The earliest written accounts of a hare bringing eggs dates back to 17th-century Germany (1682). Children would create nests, often in hats or bonnets, for the bunny to deposit its colored eggs, and only good children would receive the eggs. German settlers in Pennsylvania brought the “Oschter Haws” (Easter Hare) tradition to the colonies in the 1700s, which later evolved into the modern Easter Bunny delivering chocolates and candy.

The rabbit was an ancient symbol of fertility and new life, representing the spring season. Like other pagan symbols, it was adapted and themed around a Christian holiday.

What’s the story with Easter eggs?

I remember the tradition of coloring eggs as a child with my family and the fascination of writing messages on them with a crayon that the dye didn’t cover up. I didn’t know they symbolized new life, rebirth and the resurrection of Jesus Christ—with the hard shell representing his sealed tomb and the cracking representing his resurrection. Originally, eggs were dyed red to symbolize the blood of Christ, a tradition particularly strong in Orthodox Christianity.

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, Americans started to use pastel colors for their eggs, which has been the tradition ever since. The PAAS company was founded in 1881 by William Townley in Newark, New Jersey. The historic brand sells tablet-based egg dye kits, originally priced at five cents. The name derives from the Pennsylvania Dutch word “Passen“ for Easter. PAAS tablets are food-safe, allowing for consumption of decorated hard-boiled eggs. Anybody who has used one of these kits knows the little wire dipper that’s included.

The baskets actually originated earlier than the eggs. In the 12th century, Christians would bring baskets to church on Holy Saturday with the baskets containing their Easter meal for a blessing. Once the Easter bunny became popular, the baskets transferred their popularity to holding the eggs of the Easter bunny. Easter baskets were lined with natural or paper-based materials to mimic a bird’s nest. Popular fillers included shredded, green wax paper; shredded crepe paper; real moss; real straw; fresh grass; or green-dyed, shredded tissue paper. Inventor Donald Weder, who holds 1,400 patents, developed the process to make plastic grass, which was more durable and became the standard in the 1960s and ‘70s.

Why hunt for eggs?

The concept of the Easter egg hunt became a natural extension of the holiday as a children’s game. Easter egg hunts trace their origin to the 1700s in Germany and England. They became popular in the United States in the 1800s and eventually became popular public events. After World War II, the two-piece, hollow plastic egg began replacing the use of real eggs and started the practice of holding prizes. An important part of Easter egg hunts today, this practice really took off in the 1960s and ‘70s.

The 1960s and ‘70s was also the commercial explosion of Easter when stores added dedicated Easter sections selling the plastic eggs, plastic grass, colorful baskets and specialized Easter candy. For example, in the 1970s, Hershey started making their miniature foil-wrapped eggs.

What’s the most popular Easter egg event?

The White House Easter Egg Roll is one of the oldest, unique and popular traditions in the United States, dating back to 1878 during the presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes. Before then, children rolled eggs on the grounds of the U.S. Capitol, but Congress banned the activity because it damaged the lawn. (Boo, Congress!) When youngsters showed up the next year, President Hayes invited them to the White House instead. The event centers on children rolling hard-boiled eggs across the lawn, symbolizing new life and rebirth, though today it has expanded into a large celebration with games, music and storytelling. Over time, it grew into a major annual event often organized by the First Lady, with traditions such as official souvenir eggs introduced by Pat Nixon in 1969. Although sometimes canceled during major events like World War I, World War II and the COVID-19 pandemic, it remains the largest public White House event, drawing thousands of families each year through a lottery system.

While modern celebrations often include plastic eggs and themed activities focused on education or fitness, real and commemorative eggs are still used, and children continue to participate in races on the South Lawn, often joined by the President and First Lady. Ultimately, the tradition reflects the idea of the White House as “the people’s house,” blending religious symbolism with a festive, inclusive celebration for American families. The event is scheduled for Monday, April 6 this year and will be themed around the semiquincentennial.

What are we having to eat?

Traditional American Easter meals often center around festive, symbolic foods that reflect both religious heritage and seasonal celebration. A classic main dish is baked ham, valued for its richness and its historical association with springtime feasts following the fasting season of Lent. Alongside it, families frequently serve dishes like deviled eggs—linked to the long-standing symbolism of eggs as signs of new life. I may be biased, but my wife makes the best deviled eggs.

Sweet treats such as hot cross buns are popular. These spiced buns, marked with a cross on top, originated in England and date back at least to the medieval period, when they were traditionally eaten on Good Friday to symbolize the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Over time, they became a staple of Easter celebrations more broadly, especially in the United States, where they are enjoyed as part of the holiday’s blend of sacred meaning and comforting culinary tradition.

What’s your favorite Easter candy?

Feel free to share your favorite in the comments section below. The most popular, based upon sales and opinion polls, is Reese‘s peanut butter eggs. The most iconic is the chocolate rabbit. The first chocolate bunnies appeared in the early 1800s in Germany when advancements in chocolate-making allowed confectioners to create solid figures using molds. These early bunnies were typically solid chocolate and somewhat crude by today’s standards.

The shift to hollow chocolate bunnies came later in the 19th century, especially as industrial techniques improved. Companies discovered that making bunnies hollow required less chocolate, reduced cost and made them easier to mass-produce and ship without breaking. By the late 1800s and early 1900s, hollow chocolate bunnies had become popular on both sides of the Atlantic, particularly as chocolate production became more refined and affordable through innovations by companies like Cadbury.

Speaking of Cadbury, their egg is a popular competitor with the Reese’s peanut butter egg for the top Easter spot. The story begins with the Cadbury family, who were Quakers, founding a chocolate company in England in the 1800s. They believed in promoting wholesome alternatives to alcohol, and chocolate became one of their key products. In 1875, Cadbury introduced its first chocolate Easter eggs.

At first, these eggs were solid chocolate and fairly simple. But as chocolate-making technology improved—especially after innovations like cocoa butter processing—Cadbury was able to create smoother, more refined chocolate eggs. By the early 20th century, they were decorating eggs and even making hollow ones, which were easier to produce and allowed for larger sizes. The modern Cadbury Creme Egg didn’t appear until 1963. It was renamed the “Cadbury Creme Egg” in 1971. The gooey fondant filling—designed to look like a real egg yolk and white—was a playful twist on the traditional egg symbol.

For the sake of thoroughness, I should also mention Peeps—the brightly colored marshmallow chicks that are ubiquitous this time of year—have a surprisingly rich history, richer than their taste. Their history ties together immigration, candy innovation and the evolving celebration of Easter.

The story begins in the early 20th century with Rodda Candy Company, a small business located in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, founded by a Russian immigrant named Ira Born. They made marshmallow candies by hand, including chick shapes for Easter. At the time, each chick had to be individually shaped by hand, and it could take about 27 hours to produce a single batch—making them labor intensive and relatively rare.

Everything changed in 1953 when Just Born, another Pennsylvania-based candy company, acquired Rodda. Just Born mechanized the process, dramatically speeding up production and making Peeps widely available. What once took nearly a full day could be done in minutes. The chick shape fits perfectly with the Easter themes of new life, rebirth and springtime, similar to eggs and bunnies. Over time, Peeps became a staple of Easter baskets in the United States. Originally, Peeps were only yellow chicks, but today they come in many colors, shapes (including bunnies) and flavors. Still, the classic chick remains the most iconic.

Does your Easter bonnet have frills upon it?

If you have frills on your Easter bonnet, according to Irving Berlin’s 1933 hit song “Easter Parade,” you’ll be the grandest lady in the Easter parade. Easter hats and bonnets are one of those traditions where fashion, religion and a bit of showmanship all blend together. The custom dates back centuries in Europe. Easter also marked the arrival of spring, and people would wear new clothes to church on Easter Sunday as a symbol of a fresh beginning. Over time, this idea of “newness” became especially focused on headwear, the most visible and changeable part of an outfit.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, elaborate women’s hats—called bonnets—became fashionable in places like England and the United States. Easter was the perfect occasion to debut a new bonnet decorated with flowers, ribbons, lace and even small ornaments. Spring flowers were especially popular because they symbolized rebirth and the end of winter.

In the United States, the tradition really took off in the late 1800s and early 1900s in New York City. After attending church, people would stroll along Fifth Avenue showing off their new outfits in what became known as the Easter Parade. It wasn’t an official parade—just a social ritual of being seen. The Irving Berlin song mentioned above made it more popular throughout the country. The 1948 film with the same title starring Judy Garland and Fred Astaire further secured hats and bonnets as an Easter fixture. Today, Easter hats range from elegant to playful. In many places—especially for children—bonnets are decorated with bright colors, plastic eggs, chicks and even candy.

Thanks, as always, for reading the History Lowdown. This is my 102nd edition, so I missed recognizing my 100th anniversary edition. If you download the Substack app, all of my previous columns can be read there and many are available as audio files so you can listen to them. I appreciate your interest in history and supporting my effort to continue to share history.

Margaret Corbin

I thought it appropriate to start with a fellow Pennsylvanian. Margaret Cochran Corbin was born November 12, 1751, in what is today Franklin County. Her parents were Irish immigrants. At age 5, tragedy struck: Her father was killed in an attack by Native Americans, and her mother was kidnapped and never returned. She and her brother survived and were raised by their uncle. She married John Corbin in 1772.

At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, her husband enlisted in the First Company of the Pennsylvania Artillery and served as a member of a cannon crew. It was common at the time for wives to follow their husbands so Margaret joined her husband in camp, helping with duties such as cooking, washing and caring for wounded soldiers.

Corbin was known as Molly Pitcher, a moniker commonly used by soldiers to summon women bringing water—water to refresh the cannoneers as well as to cool overheated cannon barrels. However, she wasn’t the Molly Pitcher in the iconic story from the Battle of Monmouth. That was Mary Hays.

In the fall of 1776, the Continental Army under the command of General George Washington was in New York and was not faring well against the British regulars reinforced by Hessian mercenaries. At the Battle of Long Island, the patriot forces were routed and forced to retreat to Manhattan. They retreated again from Manhattan and were defeated at the Battle of White Plains. The last two bastions for the patriot cause in New York City were Fort Washington and, on the other side of the Hudson River, Fort Lee in New Jersey. On November 16, a combined British and Hessian force assaulted Fort Washington.

Corbin‘s artillery company was assigned to Fort Washington. During the battle, John Corbin was killed and Margaret immediately took his place on the battlefield. She helped to load and fire the gun until she was wounded by enemy fire. She was hit in the arm, chest and her jaw—which was shattered by a musket ball. Her left arm was nearly severed. Eventually the fort was overrun, and Margaret Corbin was taken prisoner by the British. She was eventually paroled by the British, but not before they gave her life-saving medical treatment.

Impressed by her bravery, the government of Pennsylvania gave her $30 to cover her immediate expenses and submitted a request to the Continental Congress for further relief since her injuries rendered her permanently disabled. She was officially added to military rolls and included in what was at the time called the Corps of Invalids. Congress granted her half the monthly pay of a soldier and a new set of clothing. This made her the first woman to receive a military pension in American history. She was discharged from the army in 1783.

Deborah Sampson

While Margaret Corbin never had to hide the fact she was a woman, that wasn’t the case for Deborah Sampson. Sampson was born December 17, 1760, in Plympton, Massachusetts. She was a direct descendent (great granddaughter) of William Bradford, the well-known governor of the Plymouth colony. Like Corbin, she had a difficult childhood. Her father abandoned her along with her mother and her six siblings. Unable to properly care for seven children, her mother placed the children in the care of relatives. Sampson ended up with an elderly relative that died, and with no one else to care for her, she became an indentured servant. She learned basket weaving skills and woodworking skills that allowed her to gain her independence.

In 1782 she attempted to join the Continental Army and signed up as a man named Timothy Thayer. Sampson was unusually tall for her time, standing at 5‘7” in height, which was typical of the average 18th century man, thus making it easier to pass as a male. Though she traveled to the nearby town of Middleborough, she was still recognized by someone when she signed enlistment papers. Since she was a female, it was assumed her deception was just to get the enlistment bonus. She returned the bonus and was not punished, though she was ostracized at the Baptist Church she attended.

Still wanting to serve, she enlisted again at Uxbridge under the name Robert Shirtliff. She succeeded this time and joined the Fourth Massachusetts Regiment. This was an elite unit used for flanking maneuvers and reconnaissance. Because of the rigorous physical requirements, Sampson assumed it would be a less likely place to be recognized as a female compared to a regular unit.

In the summer of 1782, her unit engaged in combat with a group of Tories (Americans loyal to the King of England). In one engagement near Tarrytown, New York, she was shot in the leg and slashed with a sword on her forehead. She refused treatment for fear of being discovered as a woman, but she was eventually ordered to be taken to a field hospital because of the seriousness of the wounds. A doctor treated her head wound, but she fled the hospital before the leg wound could be examined.

Upon leaving the hospital, she removed the musket ball from her leg using a penknife and a sewing needle. A few fragments of the projectile remained in her leg the rest of her life, so it never fully healed. Because of the severity of the wounds, she was given what we would today call an “office job” for the next seven months. In the summer of 1783, while still serving with the army in Philadelphia, she developed a very high fever and lost consciousness. She was taken to Dr. Barnabas Binney who discovered her secret. Instead of revealing her identity, however, he transported her to his home and had his wife, daughters and a female nurse care for her.

Her gender was finally revealed in 1783 by Dr. Binney and General John Paterson, who gave her a discharge with money to travel home. After a year and a half of service, she was honorably discharged by General Henry Knox.

After the war, she married and had four children, but her fight wasn’t over. This time it was with the Massachusetts state legislature, who denied her pay for her service because she was a woman. Ten years after her service, John Hancock signed legislation restoring her pay with interest. Her next fight was for a pension. Paul Revere led the letter-writing campaign to secure her pension. It wasn’t until 1816 that Congress finally approved a pension of $76.80 a year. She died in 1827, but her fight was honored in 2020 when Congress passed the Deborah Sampson Act, legislation eliminating barriers for care services faced by female veterans.

Nancy Hart

While Deborah Sampson and Margaret Corbin saw action with the Continental Army, Nancy Hart has a very different story. Hart lived on the frontier, which was basically the western portion of any of the colonies. Also, unlike the other two, little is known about the early life of Hart. Some historians report she was born in North Carolina in 1741, but recent research has shown that she may have been born in Pennsylvania or New York. It is agreed upon that she married Benjamin Hart, and while Sampson was a descendent of famous relatives, Hart provided the lineage for a couple of famous descendants, including Senators Henry Clay and Thomas Hart Benton. She was also the cousin of General Daniel Morgan, the hero of the Battle of Cowpens.

The Harts moved to Georgia just prior to the outbreak of the American Revolution. Still living on the frontier, Nancy continued to enhance her frontier skills, including hunting and shooting as well as learning to use plants for medicinal treatments—important skills in caring for her two sons and six daughters when her husband joined the Georgia militia in support of the patriots’ cause.

Living on the frontier during the Revolutionary War was like living in the midst of a Civil War. A great deal of the fighting was not between the Continental Army and British soldiers, but rather, it was everyday patriots fighting for independence versus those who were loyalists, also known as Tories. This fighting was often brutally violent and included guerilla tactics and ambushes. It was neighbor versus neighbor, which often led to property destruction. Hart served as a spy, pretending to wander around as a mentally unstable person. She also used her medicinal knowledge to help treat wounded soldiers.

In 1779, a group of Tory soldiers searching for a fleeing patriot soldier arrived at the home of Nancy Hart and demanded food. The loyalist soldiers threatened her and demanded she kill a turkey and feed them. She wasn’t afraid for herself, but she was very concerned for her children. She did the sensible thing and prepared a turkey dinner for them, but at the same time, she devised a plan.

While they were eating, enjoying a robust feast and imbibing some whiskey—Hart put her plan into action. First telling jokes to make the men feel at ease, Hart offered more food to keep them distracted while she passed their muskets one-by-one outside to her daughter to hide them. The soldiers had stacked them by the door inside to be at the ready in the event Hart’s husband or other patriot forces arrived. Eventually a soldier reacted, suddenly jumping up from the table and confronting Hart about the missing weapons. Quickly raising her hunting rifle, she announced she was taking them all prisoner. Her daughter sounded the alarm on a conch shell to summon help. Hart told the soldiers that she wouldn’t hesitate to shoot them, but one decided to test her, and as he rushed her, she shot him dead. Some sources indicate she shot a second man before the arrival of her husband and patriot forces.

When they discovered the Tories being held prisoner by Nancy Hart, the decision was made to take the others outside and shoot them. Hart objected, though, insisting they instead be taken outside and hanged as criminals. They were.

Hart lived until 1830, often recounting the story of that day. In 1912, construction crews found skeletal remains of the six soldiers; several had broken necks. Today, Hart County in Georgia is named for her.

Elizabeth Zane

Fort Henry was a frontier outpost located in present day Wheeling, West Virginia. It was built to defend against Indian attacks from the Ohio Valley. In 1782, the fort was laid siege to by 300 loyalist soldiers and their Indian allies. It is considered the last battle of the Revolutionary War.

Among those inside the fort during the siege was Elizabeth Zane. She was visiting her brother, Colonel Ebeneezer Zane, who was among the 42 militia that manned the fort. Elizabeth, or Betty as she was known, was born in 1765 in Berkeley County, Virginia (West Virginia today). Her father and three brothers were all members of the patriot militia.

The siege began on September 11, 1782, and after 30 hours of fighting, the fort was still holding out but running low on gunpowder. Betty Zane recalled there was a good supply of gunpowder in her other brother’s home, which was 60 yards from the fort. She volunteered to retrieve it despite the distance and danger. As the attacking force observed her exiting the fort, they didn’t fire, assuming she was surrendering—especially as a 16-year-old female. They held their fire long enough for her to make it to the cabin, and once inside she placed the gunpowder in a tablecloth and swung it over her shoulder. Upon exiting, she made a dash for the fort, but the enemy quickly realized what she was up to, and they opened fire. Remarkably, she evaded the gunfire and made it back to the fort—a remarkable feat and act of bravery.

The additional gunpowder provided enough supplies for the fort to hold on until the attackers withdrew. She later married and had seven children, living until age 58. Today, Betty Zane Pioneer Days are held in her honor. Author Zane Grey, renowned for his novels of the American West, is her great-grandnephew.

Before I close, I want to make sure that I don’t leave you with the impression that there were only a few women who did remarkable things that had an impact on America’s independence. A Baltimore newspaper article that appeared 250 years ago on March 12, 1776, urged the public to be grateful for the women who were aiding the patriots’ cause. Labeling them “humane ladies,” the article lauded the women who were providing bandages and treating the wounded as well as caring for the household while their husbands were away. The bandages were often made from their own clothing, which they sacrificed for the cause. Not mentioned in the article were their other sacrifices, including the fact that most items the colonists boycotted were products used by women to maintain the household. While men were dumping tea in the Boston Harbor, the majority of tea was consumed by women. Notably, there was no boycott of rum, which was enjoyed by the men.

Just as much as we should celebrate and honor the men who donned uniforms and fought for the cause, we should also remember the importance of the women who played a role in achieving our independence.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

The Encore Effect causes other worthy and important stories to be neglected or even untold since the focus falls solely on these “center-stage” stories. It reminds me of listening to ‘80s radio on SiriusXM satellite radio. It’s a favorite channel of mine. They focus so much on the recognizable, popular songs that people know all the lyrics to that they exclude other great songs from the ‘80s. I realize that for both music and history, time limitations make it impossible to play every song or learn every story in history.

I often witnessed this shortfall with American history survey classes, where it becomes routine to tell the same stories and focus on the same people yearly. Everyone is guilty of it at one point or another. Don’t get me wrong—it is important to tell those popular stories. They are so well-known that you don’t want to have a student who says, “I’ve never heard of Thomas Edison or Clara Barton.” That would lead to more of the overstated criticism of “What are they even teaching in schools today?” It makes me think of those video clips Jay Leno used to do titled “Jaywalking.” Viewers laughed as interviewees either couldn’t answer or gave wildly inaccurate responses to the most routine history questions. It is important to know these stories, but it’s equally important for those who want to better understand their country’s history and heritage to explore some of the lesser known but equally important stories as well. For example, everyone seems to know about the terrible events that happened at Auschwitz, but one can expand their understanding of the Holocaust by looking at the remarkable events that happened at Sobibor. The New Deal is the most widely recognized presidential program, but how about the Fair Deal and the Great Society? The courage of the original Mercury Seven astronauts is well-known, but most have never heard of the Mercury 13 astronauts who are all but forgotten.

Since it is Black History Month, the following story example is one that gets to the point of popular history. Rosa Parks is a name that is universally known. The recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom and Congressional Gold Medal has numerous items named for her, from streets to schools with statues as well as a variety of awards and recognitions in her honor. Her refusal to surrender her seat on a Montgomery public bus and subsequent arrest were a central moment in the modern civil rights era. All of those honors and recognitions are well-deserved, as is her place in history.

For every person that knows Rosa Parks, there may be an equal number that do not know Irene Morgan. Morgan was born April 9, 1917, in Baltimore, Maryland. During World War II, she took a job with the Glenn L. Martin aircraft company, a defense contractor for the United States during the war. She worked on the production line making the B-26 Marauder bomber. As a black woman, this job would’ve not been available to her prior to the war, but the demand for labor during World War II created new opportunities. Like so many Americans, she pitched in and did her part.

The stress of working an industrial job with long hours resulted in her having a miscarriage in1944. She traveled to visit her mother in Gloucester, Virginia. She was taking a break to physically and mentally recover and planned to return to her job making aircraft. On July 16, 1944, Morgan boarded a Greyhound bus to return to Baltimore and her job. She took a seat with another African American woman who was carrying an infant. It’s important to note the seat across from them was vacant because it was illegal for African Americans to sit next to or across from white passengers at this time. Eventually a white passenger boarded the bus and took the seat across from them. At that point, the bus driver stood up and walked back to their seat and informed both Walker and her seatmate they would have to move. Morgan refused to move, and the bus driver immediately drove the bus to a police station, parked the bus and left to find the sheriff.

It wasn’t long before the sheriff returned with a warrant in hand for her arrest. When presented with the arrest warrant, Morgan tore it up and threw it out the window. At this point, the sheriff grabbed her arm with the intention of pulling her off the bus. She responded by kicking him in the groin. He retreated and waddled off the bus to find another law enforcement officer. Another officer boarded the bus and confronted Morgan. She explained, “He touched me and that’s when I kicked him in a very bad place.” She further explained that she contemplated biting him but decided not to because he looked dirty. The second officer then attempted to pull her off the bus, and pushing and pulling ensued between the two of them. He threatened to use his nightstick on her to which she replied, “We’ll whip each other!” He retreated to find reinforcements and Morgan was finally arrested in Saluda, Virginia.

Morgan was charged with resisting arrest and violating Virginia’s Jim Crow transit law. On October 18, 1944, Morgan’s case was heard in court. She pleaded guilty and agreed to pay a $100 fine for resisting arrest but refused to plead to the segregation charge. She argued, since Maryland did not enforce segregation for interstate travel, Virginia’s Jim Crow law should not apply to her, a resident of Maryland. The local court found her guilty. With the help of the NAACP, she appealed the ruling. The case was heard by the Virginia Supreme Court. The state supreme court also ruled her in violation of the law.

Morgan was not done yet fighting for equality—a fight that started when she was required to give up her seat, just to leave that seat vacant, because of her race. Morgan explained, “If something happens to you which is wrong, the best thing to do is have it corrected in the best way you can. The best thing for me to do was to go to the Supreme Court.” She was represented by NAACP lawyers Thurgood Marshall and William Hastie.

In the 1946 case of Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia, the United States Supreme Court ruled in favor of Morgan 6-1 and declared the Virginia law unconstitutional. This ruling made segregation on interstate transportation unconstitutional. Later, the Supreme Court extended the ruling to interstate bus terminals.

The court decision was respected in Virginia soon after it was issued as exemplified by the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation where African American bus riders travelling on Greyhound and Trailways buses through the upper South tested the law. However, states in the deep South ignored the Supreme Court ruling which led to the Freedom Rider campaign to force Southern states to follow the court’s decision.

Morgan’s actions set in motion a series of events that would change the United States, including the actions of Rosa Parks eleven years later. That’s not saying that Morgan is more important than Parks. Both are remarkable stories. It just exemplifies the Encore Effect—that the prevalent stories dominate center stage at a loss to others. Sometimes, in history, there is so much content to be covered and so many great stories that once we become focused on one, others are often forgotten or overlooked.

One way to remedy this is to keep reading the History Lowdown. As always, thanks for reading.

I learned from many years in the classroom that lesser-known stories—what some might classify as fun facts—always enhanced the lessons. There is plenty of information about Presidents in an American history survey class, including elections, legislation, wars, and executive decisions. In an effort to keep those lessons from becoming repetitive or routine, adding fun facts kept the students interested and often added that proverbial cherry on top of a lesson. These facts often weren’t details included on tests or important for future recall, but sometimes it made those Presidents—people who were distant figures in a textbook or just images on currency—seem a little more human or at least a little more interesting for teenagers. So for Presidents’ Day weekend, I will share some of those stories of the lighter side of history.

Morning Habits

Many of us have morning habits or rituals we do, and the Presidents were no different. Thomas Jefferson woke up every morning at sunrise and the first thing he did was put his feet in a cold water bath. He did this for many years, over 50. He believed that it aided his immune system and attributed his good health to this daily routine. He often included this detail in his correspondence with others. If you visit Monticello, you can see the place on the floor in his bedroom where the basin with water sat.

If the idea of putting your feet in cold water first thing in the morning is not appealing, you likely won’t want to partake in the next ritual either. It is well known that being President comes with a great amount of stress. John Quincy Adams dealt with that stress by taking a swim in the Potomac River. In fact, he walked from the White House to the Potomac River and then swam for approximately an hour. It was quite the strenuous activity, especially for someone at the age of 50 who continued to do it for the next 30 years. Unlike Jefferson, he did this only during the summer months. It was typical at the time for men to swim sans clothing, so if you hear that trivia question about what President skinny-dipped, you now know the answer. There is a legendary story that a female reporter secured an interview by sitting on his clothes until he agreed to answer questions, but this story is likely more folklore than fact.

Calvin Coolidge slept 10 hours every night, which typically prompted my students to indicate they wanted to tell their parents that so they could also sleep longer. His morning routine included eating breakfast, which is certainly not unusual, but while he was eating breakfast, a member of his staff massaged his head with petroleum jelly. He believed it kept him healthy and maintained his hair. I should include the fact that this was done while he ate his breakfast in bed.

At least Coolidge started his day with a relatively popular breakfast food as his favorite: pancakes. The same can’t be said for other presidents. Prior to his presidency, Ulysses Grant liked cucumbers soaked in vinegar to start his morning. Richard Nixon enjoyed cottage cheese with ketchup. William Taft didn’t like eggs, but he did enjoy a steak every day with a healthy portion of buttered toast. Harry Truman enjoyed a late breakfast after taking a morning walk—but before his morning walk each day, he had a shot of brandy.

My wife, and nearly everyone I know, includes a cup of coffee with their morning routine. Not even my dad, who drank coffee throughout the day, could keep up with Teddy Roosevelt. Roosevelt was estimated to drink somewhere between 16 to 40 cups of coffee a day. His family described the cup used as “more of a bathtub in nature.” The habit started when he was a child suffering from asthma, and it was prescribed by a doctor. The habit followed him throughout his life, though he did change from black coffee, as prescribed by that doctor, to using 5 to 7 teaspoons of sugar per cup. The caffeine and sugar certainly played a role in the renowned amount of energy he possessed. Some even attribute to him the slogan that is used by Maxwell House: “Good to the last drop.”

Jobs

Jimmy Carter successfully used his work on the family peanut farm as part of his campaign to show he was an outsider in Washington and had a humble hard-working background. It was successful. Some other Presidents used their early jobs in a similar manner while others did not.

As a retired teacher, I always noted the Presidents that were teachers. There were more than ten. John Adams taught in a one-room school house. Chester Arthur and Lyndon Johnson taught high school. Grover Cleveland taught at a school for the blind. Barack Obama and Bill Clinton taught law while George H.W. Bush taught at the Rice School of Business. Woodrow Wilson is the only president to obtain a PhD, not only teaching college courses, but also becoming the President of Princeton.

Other jobs were considered more unusual. Richard Nixon worked for a butcher, plucking chickens. Calvin Coolidge was a toy maker, and Lyndon Johnson was a goat herder. Barack Obama worked in a Baskin-Robbins as an ice cream scooper. Abraham Lincoln worked as the bartender in a business he opened with a partner; they named the bar Berry and Lincoln. Benjamin Harrison worked as a court crier. Most folks know Ronald Reagan was an actor and a lifeguard, but before that he worked at the circus. Worthy of noting, Reagan is credited with saving 77 lives as a lifeguard.

The most unusual job goes to Grover Cleveland. Cleveland was a county sheriff, which included the responsibility of carrying out executions. Instead of delegating the job of hangman to someone else, he personally did it. He executed two criminals, both convicted of murder.

Quite a few presidents also operated a business. George W. Bush was part owner of the Texas Rangers. Harry Truman was a haberdasher and opened his own shop. Bill Clinton worked in a grocery store and convinced the owner to allow him to open a comic book sales stand within the grocery store to make extra money. Warren Harding bought the newspaper Marion Star and worked as the editor.

Finally, there are the Presidents who had physically demanding jobs. Sixteen Presidents worked on, operated or owned farms. Teddy Roosevelt worked as a cowboy in North Dakota. Andrew Johnson worked as a tailor. Herbert Hoover worked as a geologist and mining engineer, which often required laborious underground work. James Garfield worked as a custodian and a canal boy, which was someone who tied canal boats to mules.

My favorite job for a President was that of Gerald Ford. He worked as a park ranger at Yellowstone—something I certainly would like to do. His duties included armed bear patrol.

President Lyndon Johnson

I could have focused on any one of our 45 Presidents, but I think Lyndon Johnson is a great choice for storytelling. It could be that I am biased because he was President when I was born, and he was the only President to teach in a public high school. Or maybe it’s because he reminds me of that fun but wacky uncle most people seem to have. After all, Johnson is my mom‘s maiden name. In any case, there are a number of stories about President Johnson that range from fun to unbelievably crass.

My favorite story is about his ownership of an AmphiCar. An AmphiCar was a James Bond-esque car that ran on land and in the water. Johnson purchased one that he used to give visitors a tour of his ranch. They were made in West Germany, so many Americans were unfamiliar with the car, making it perfect for a prank. There was a lake on Johnson’s property, and as they drove toward the lake, down a hill, Johnson would suddenly yell, “The brakes, the brakes aren’t working!” He would pretend to pump the brakes to no avail while those in the car expressed a look of terror on their faces. As the car met the water and started to glide like a boat, Johnson would erupt in unrestrained laughter.

While I can appreciate the fun he had doing this, I can’t imagine what he did next as President. It’s not my style, but it sure was effective. Johnson was well-known for what others labeled the Johnson treatment. Being summoned to the Oval Office to meet with the President can be intimidating, even for seasoned members of Congress. Johnson used his six-foot, four large frame to his advantage by towering over members of Congress and White House staffers. He didn’t hesitate to invade the personal space of someone he was trying to convince to vote a certain way or to complete a certain task in what was known as the Johnson treatment.

The above photo will make many of you uncomfortable, but that was just the tip of the iceberg. Johnson had the unusual habit of summoning someone for a meeting, and when they arrived, they discovered Johnson was on the toilet with the door open. He would then converse with the unfortunate soul while he went about his business. Johnson was very comfortable with nudity, and he used that to his advantage. He often invited politicians and members of the media to go for a swim in the White House swimming pool while discussing issues or conducting interviews. Johnson never wore a swimsuit. This is a good example of what students today would classify as “cringe.”

At one point, after having gallbladder surgery, reporters asked the President how the surgery went. In an effort to be thorough, Johnson opened his jacket, unbuttoned his shirt and loosened his trousers to show them the scar. Some were appalled, but the President later explained he did it to dispel rumors that the surgery was for a cancer diagnosis.

Johnson wasn’t just criticized for his public showing of his scar, he also received criticism for something he did with his dogs. Johnson had two beagles during his time in the White House. On one occasion in 1964, while showing them to reporters, he picked one up by its ears, causing it to yelp. Public condemnation was immediate and indignant. He claimed it was a gentle way to get the dogs to bark, but after doing it a second time, he ceased doing it. He also invited the two dogs to join him in the Oval Office where Johnson would howl along with the dogs. The dogs’ names, by the way, were Him and Her.

One change that Lyndon Johnson made to the White House was the plumbing, specifically the showers. Johnson preferred a higher degree of water pressure, so he had the White House plumber install nozzles that produced pressure equivalent to a fire hose. In addition to the increased pressure, he also insisted on multiple nozzles at different heights and angles. They were all set at jetstream level, including the two that faced his area that you don’t want necessarily blasted with water. They also installed a switch so he could switch from cold to hot water immediately. Plumbers had to visit his home to determine what kind of reserve tank was needed for this feature. When Richard Nixon was elected in 1968, he took one look at the shower and said, “Get rid of this stuff.”

White House Changes

There were quite a few changes to the White House over the years. Recent headlines announced President Trump was having the East Wing of the White House demolished and replaced with a new ballroom. There have been a series of revisions, renovations and upgrades over the years. I will focus here on those that were simply preferences of the President.

Harry Truman added a bowling alley, and Richard Nixon moved it to the basement.

Franklin Roosevelt had an indoor swimming pool built that was popularly used by other Presidents until Nixon had it removed and turned into the press briefing room. Roosevelt also created a 40-seat movie theater from a cloak room. It was used by numerous Presidents for viewing newsreels, screening movies and rehearsing speeches. John Kennedy viewed a number of famous films in the theater, including the first James Bond film

Dr. No (1962), the thriller The Manchurian Candidate (1962), West Side Story (1961) and From Russia with Love (1963). Dwight Eisenhower, who loved golf, had a putting green built. Gerald Ford brought swimming back with an outdoor pool. Barack Obama added a basketball court. An outdoor tennis court and jogging track were installed by the Clintons, and in 2020, Melania Trump added a pavilion to the tennis courts.

All of the sports and athletic facilities still exist. The movie theater, however, was razed in the recent demolition of the East Wing.

There are many more interesting stories about the Presidents, but in a History Lowdown first, I thought I would test your knowledge of Presidential trivia.

1. Which President could write Greek language with one hand and Latin language with the other hand at the same time?

2. Who is the only President to hold a patent?

3. Who was the only President drafted by a professional sports team?

4. Who was the only President not married?

5. Which President had a pet alligator in the White House?

I hope this column provided some fun for you. As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown.

Here are the answers to the quiz by the President’s number in office. 1-20, 2-16, 3-38, 4-15, 5-6

Francis Scott Key

Most people know the poem used for the lyrics was written by Francis Scott Key. Many also know it was written during the British assault on Fort McHenry in Baltimore. Familiarity declines when one must identify what war the assault took place: The War of 1812.

Francis Scott Key was already a well-known and respected figure in early American public life before the war. Born in 1779 in Maryland, Key was raised in a wealthy and well-educated family. He was known for his eloquence, strong religious faith and deep sense of patriotism—noted in his admiration of the newly formed United States. He became a successful lawyer in Washington, D.C., and argued 100 cases before the Supreme Court. He married Mary Lloyd and they had 11 children. By the time the War of 1812 brought him into the circumstances that inspired his famous poem, he was already a prominent attorney and public figure.

During the siege of Fort McHenry in September of 1814, Francis Scott Key wasn’t a soldier—he was a civilian caught in the middle of the war. He had gone aboard a British ship under a flag of truce to help negotiate the release of an American physician, Dr. William Beanes, who had been captured by the British. Although the mission was successful, Key overheard plans for the attack on Baltimore, so the British refused to let him return to shore. Instead, he was held temporarily on a small truce vessel behind the British fleet, where he was forced to watch the all-night bombardment of Fort McHenry. As dawn broke, Key anxiously looked toward the fort and saw that the large American flag was still flying, signaling that the fort had not fallen. (It was tradition that forts were surrendered by occupants taking down their flag.) Moved by the moment, he began composing the poem that became “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

Key had been writing lyrics and poetry for some time. At St. John’s College, he wrote hymns. He also wrote a number of poems, but none of them achieved the notoriety of ”The Star-Spangled Banner.” While being held prisoner on a small ship next to the H.M.S. Surprise, Key had plenty of time to craft his poem since the bombardment lasted 25 hours. In fact, while most people are aware of the first verse—or stanza in poetry terms—he actually wrote four stanzas.

The Poem

Stanza one is the first verse we all know well, but let’s take a look at the actual meaning within some of the lines.

Stanza 1

O say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light,

⁠What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming?

Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,

⁠O’er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?

And the rockets’ red glare, the bombs bursting in air,

Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there;

O say does that star-spangled banner yet wave,

⁠O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

The first stanza focuses on the “dawn’s early light” and the anxiety of whether the American flag survived the “bombs bursting in air.” The bombardment began at 6 a.m. on September 13, 1814, so by the next morning, the anxiety over whether the fort had surrendered, and thus the flag being lowered, was real. The bombs that were bursting were hollow iron spheres with explosives inside; they were fired from mortars on ships in the harbor. The fact they exploded in the air was actually a good thing because the British were cutting the fuses too short, which caused less damage to the fort. The rockets were Congreve Rockets. They were wooden rods with an iron casing on the end—imagine a 6-foot bottle rocket. The iron casings on the end ranged from 3 pounds to 300 pounds. They were not very accurate, but they did have a psychological impact on the enemy from their loud roaring sound and the streaking light they created as the fuel burned. The British fired approximately 1,800 mortar bombs and rockets at the fort, so it was indeed a moment of triumph and relief when the flag was still waving. It should also be noted the flag over Fort McHenry wasn’t a typically sized flag. The flag with 15 stars and 15 stripes measured 30×42 feet.

Stanza 2

On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep,

⁠Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes,

What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep,

⁠As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?

Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam,

In full glory reflected now shines on the stream:

‘Tis the star-spangled banner, O long may it wave

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

The second stanza describes the flag “fitfully” blowing over the fort, moving from the darkness of night to being revealed in the morning, symbolizing a new beginning. Key artfully uses alliteration to emphasize his disdain for the British Army and Navy when he refers to them as a “haughty host” arrogantly preparing to continue their attack.

Stanza 3

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore

⁠That the havoc of war and the battle’s confusion,

A home and a country should leave us no more?

⁠Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution.

No refuge could save the hireling and slave,

From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:

And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave,

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

This stanza is clearly anti-British. It contains the line “No refuge could save the hireling and slave / From the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave.” Key is criticizing the British forces’ use of mercenaries (hirelings) and noting the use of former American slaves who escaped to fight for the British. He also notes their “foul footsteps” polluted our soil. Key, a slaveholder himself, was criticized for using slavery to characterize those fighting for the British. Key’s legacy as a slave holder is complicated. He owned slaves, but he also freed some of them, and as an attorney, he defended slaves petitioning for freedom in the courts.

Stanza 4

O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand,

⁠Between their loved home and the war’s desolation,

Blessed with vict’ry and peace, may the heav’n rescued land,

⁠Praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation!

Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,

And this be our motto: “In God is our trust.”

And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave,

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave!

Stanza 4 concludes with a celebration of American victory, attributing it to divine intervention (”Heav’n rescued land”) and declaring “In God is our trust.” This is the origin of the motto of the United States. It’s also a statement of triumphant victory and justification of the war (“Then conquer we must”) while calling for peace in the future as Key was originally opposed to the war. It is worth noting that while the first three stanzas contain questions, this stanza is purely a statement.

Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote a fifth and unofficial stanza in 1861 at the outbreak of the American Civil War.

When our land is illumed with Liberty’s smile,

If a foe from within strikes a blow at her glory,

Down, down with the traitor who dares to defile

The flag of her stars and the page of her story!

By the millions unchained when our birthright was gained,

We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained!

And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave

While the land of the free is the home of the brave!

Holmes was clearly a unionist as he classified secessionists as traitors who defile the flag and the nation’s history. He also notably called for the emancipation of slaves. His final point was the union will be preserved unstained, and that is symbolized by the flag.

The Song

If folks know a piece of trivia about “The Star-Spangled Banner,” it is likely the fact that the song is set to is a British drinking song. “To Anacreon in Heaven” was written by John Stanford Smith around 1775. It was written for the Anacreontic Society, a London gentlemen’s music club. The song celebrated friendship, music and wine, and its wide vocal range made it a bit of a “show-off” piece. Since the song requires a vocal range of an octave and a fifth, the melody is challenging to sing. That’s been made painfully evident in some renditions that are now infamous performances, including those by Carl Lewis, Macy Gray, Fergie and Roseanne Barr—who attempted to cover her vocal mutilation by making jokes that were panned. Ironically, Francis Scott Key likely wouldn’t have minded these versions as much as other Americans because he was tone deaf.

By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the melody had crossed the Atlantic and became popular in the United States, where people regularly wrote patriotic lyrics to popular tunes. When Francis Scott Key wrote his poem after witnessing the British bombardment of Fort McHenry, the poem was soon paired with this well-known melody because it fit the poem’s meter perfectly.

The National Anthem

“The Star-Spangled Banner” didn’t become the National Anthem right away. In fact, it wasn’t until 1931 that Congress officially made it the national song. Soon after the War of 1812 ended, the poem appeared in handbills and in newspapers as the “Defense of Fort McHenry.” When the poem was accompanied by the melody of “To Anacreon in Heaven,” it became popular and was performed at public events, particularly those that were military or political in nature. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was one of three songs identified with the United States since there was no official national anthem. The other two were “Hail Columbia” and “My Country, ‘Tis of Thee.” In 1889, the United States Navy made it the official song for flag-raising ceremonies.

In 1916, President Wilson ordered “The Star-Spangled Banner” be played at official military, government and civic events. By that time, it was serving as the de facto national anthem, but the road to make it official was not a smooth one. Debates continued, even on the floor of Congress, as to what the official national anthem should be. Some opponents cited the fact it was a difficult song to perform while others said it was too focused on war. “America the Beautiful” was a favorite choice of many opponents. Supporters, however, prevailed in their argument that the song captured a defining moment of national survival during the War of 1812 and symbolized resilience, patriotism and the endurance of the American flag.

After a lengthy public lobbying effort and letter writing campaign by veterans’ organizations and patriotic groups, Congress passed a bill and President Herbert Hoover signed it, making “The Star-Spangled Banner” the official National Anthem of the United States in 1931. In 1942, during World War II, Congress included guidance on how the National Anthem should be performed and respected in the newly established U.S. Flag Code, helping standardize public etiquette such as standing, removing hats, and placing the hand over the heart. It was in the postwar era that the song became a fixture at sporting events, especially after its regular use during World War II made pregame performances customary.

Today, “The Star-Spangled Banner” mirrors the history of the United States itself—shaped by conflict, debate and a persistent hope for unity. From its origins in a moment of uncertainty at Fort McHenry to its place as the National Anthem, the song has endured because it speaks to resilience and the survival of shared ideals.

As always, thanks for reading the History Lowdown—and practice that octave and a fifth interval range for the next time you are singing our National Anthem.